Europe and the New World

Europe and the New World 1400-1600

Motives: Fascination with the East • Fantasy literature about “other worlds”; became very popular during the Middle Ages • The Travels of John Manderville • Stories of Christian kingdoms • The Travels of Marco Polo • Circa 1271 • Merchants of Venice; traveled to the court of Khubilai Khan • Most informative of all the descriptions of Asia by medieval travelers

Motives • Wealth through Trade • Merchants had high hopes of finding precious metals and new areas of trade • Direct access to spices of the East • Christian Missions • Crusading zeal to bring more people to the Christian fold • Portuguese and Spanish place great emphasis upon this

Means: Centralization of Government • The centralization of government that was occurring in Europe at the end of the Renaissance had a major impact upon the Age of Discovery • With the greater resources at their disposal, the states of Europe could turn their energies beyond their borders • For example, France invaded Italy, but small Portugal, which could not pursue power in Europe, turned abroad • Another example was Spain

Means: Better Maps • Portolanai • Detailed maps made by medieval navigators replaced the previously more fanciful maps • Problem – drawn on a flat scale and thus did reflect the curvature of the earth; little help on longer overseas voyages • However, by 15th century enough knowledge had been gained through cartography that Europeans had a pretty accurate maps • Furthermore, Ptolemy’s Geography became available by the end of the 15th century

Means: Ships and Navigation • Building of better naval ships • More seaworthy • Mastered use of axial rudder (import from China) • Combine use of lateen sails with square rig • Ships were now mobile enough to sail against wind, engage in naval warfare and carry a substantial amount of goods over a long distance • Navigation • Use of quadrant and knowledge of Pole Star to ascertain their latitude; however, was useless below the equator • Emergence of the compass and astrolabe – allowed exploration of high seas with greater confidence • Discovery of wind patterns • Ships sailing down African coast had problems sailing back because of winds • Discovered they could tack out into the Ocean and catch westerly winds near the Azores that would take them back to Europe

Portuguese Maritime Empire • Prince Henry, the Navigator • Founds school for navigators in 1419 • Through the latter decades of the 15th Century they travel down the coast of Africa, discovering sources of gold and later slaves, establishing posts along the coast • Bartholomew Dias around the Cape • The Portuguese hear of reports of a passage to India around the southern tip of Africa • In 1488, Bartholomew Dias attempts to round Cape of Good Hope, but is forced to return as he feared a mutiny among his crew

Portuguese Maritime Empire • Vasco da Gama to India • A decade later, Vasco da Gama succeeds in rounding the Cape of Good Hope; 1597 • Travels to several ports on the east coast of Africa and then continues across the Arabian Sea to city of Calicut • Arrives in Calicut in May of 1498 • Returns to Europe losing only two of his ships; returns with enough ginger and cinnamon to give his investors a profit of several thousand percent • Portuguese Empire • Throughout the rest of the 16th Century, the Portuguese continue to send expeditions around the Cape of Good Hope, capturing several ports and the spice trade from the locals, especially the Arabs • Successful because of guns and seamanship

Voyages to the New World:Christopher Columbus • Italian; believed the East could be reached by sailing west • Convinced Queen Isabella of Spain to finance his expedition • Sailed on 3 August 1492 with three ships • Reached the Bahamas in October and then went on to explore coastlines of Cuba and landed on the shores of Hispaniola • Tried in three other trips (1493, 1498, 1502) to find a passage to the east • During those trips he basically mapped all the islands of the Caribbean and the mainland of central America

Voyages to the New World:John Cabot • Venetian • Sponsored by King Henry VII to map what became the New England coastline • His voyages establish an English presence in what becomes North America and lays the foundation for the eventual thirteen colonies that England will establish

Voyages to the New World: Balboa and Magellan • Balboa • Led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama that reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513 • Magellan • Sailed in 1519 through the straits that bear in name at the tip of South America • Continued to the Pacific to the Philippines where he was killed • However, one of his five original ships survived and returned to Spain and thus the first circumnavigation of the planet

Spanish Empire in the New World:Hernán Cortés and Mexico • 1519, Spanish expedition (550 soldiers; 16 horses) led by Cortés lands at Veracruz and travels to the capital city of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan • Initially greeted by Aztecs, but trouble erupts between the Spaniards and Aztecs in 1520 • Spanish are expelled, but not before sickness engulfs the local population (smallpox) • Cortes receives new soldiers and native allies; captures the capital becoming new capital of Spanish rule in Mexico (New Spain)

Spanish Empire in the New World: Francisco Pizarro and Peru • Pizarro lands on Pacific coast of South America with 180 men in December of 1530 • Helped by fact that most of the population had succumbed to smallpox, including the ruling family • Captures capital of Inca Empire and by 1535 establishes new capital at Lima for the newest colony in the Spanish Empire

Spanish Empire in the New World:Administration • Spanish policy was a mix of confusion, misguided paternalism and cruel exploitation • Two administrative units based on rule by viceroys • New Spain: Mexico, central America and the Caribbean islands with capital at Mexico City • Peru: western South America with capital at Lima • Spanish monarchs were also granted by the Papacy extensive rights over ecclesiastical affairs

The African Slave Trade:Growth of the Slave Trade • Initially started by the Portuguese in the late 15th Century • Discovery of New World changes situation • African slaves become source of labor for sugar plantations • Over the next two centuries, slave trade grows dramatically • 16th Century: 275,000 • 17th Century: 1 million • 18th Century: 6 million • Reasons for increase • High death rate, both in transport and while laboring

The African Slave Trade: Effects and End of Slave Trade • Economic Effect • Forced families into poverty • Depopulation of some areas of Africa • Political • Increased conflict between local Africans • Destroyed several African states, for example Benin • Use of slaves remained acceptable for some time, but opposition began to form • Society of Friends criticize slavery in 1770’s • French abolish slavery during radical phase of Revolution in the 1790’s • British abolish slavery in 1807; continue in US until 1860’s

Toward a New Economy:Price Revolution/Inflation • Major concern • Although it was only 2-3%, it was noticeable because Europe was used to stable prices • Wages failed to keep up with price increases; as a result, wage earners, especially agricultural workers and salaried workers in urban areas saw their standard of living drop • However, landed aristocrats were generally immune because they could raise rents; additionally, commercial entrepreneurs benefited through rising prices, expanded markets, and cheaper labor costs

Toward a New Economy:Price Revolution/Inflation • Historians have argued that this profit inflation helped stimulate the investment and growth of capitalism that explained the economic expansion and prosperity of the 16th century • Governments were also affected, forced to heavily borrow, imposing new taxes on an already heavily taxed populace creating further discontent • Causes • Traditional view: influx of precious metals from the new world • Current view: growing population increasing demand for labor and land, driving the prices of both up

Toward a New Economy:Growth of Commercial Capitalism • Made possible by new forms of commercial organizations – joint-stock company • Individuals bought shares in a company and received dividends on their investment • Board of directors ran the company and made important business decisions • Eased the ability of companies to raise large amounts of capital • New industries: Shipbuilding, mining & metallurgy • Banking • Family banking firms, i.e., the Fuggers, could no longer supply the huge amounts of capital needed • Emergence of state-sponsored banks, e.g., The Bank of Amsterdam (1609)

Toward a New Economy:Mercantilism • Name given by historians to describe the dominate economic policy of the period • Belief that total volume of trade was unchangeable; saw economic activity as war carried on by peaceful means because a nation could only expand economically at the expense of another • Prosperity of a nation depended upon supply of bullion, gold & silver; desirable to achieve a favorable balance of trade (exports greater value than imports) • State intervention in the economy for the sake of the national good

Impact of European Expansion • Conquered • Destruction of native peoples • Emergence of what we know now as Latin America • Importation of European crops and livestock (e.g., the horse) • Catholic missionaries • Conquerors • Advancement for individual Europeans • Influx of New World wealth (gold & silver) • Exchange of plants and livestock (e.g., the potato, tobacco & chocolate) • Increased competition between the states of Europe for trade, land, and power

Europe and the New World