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The cult of Lord Guan

The cult of Lord Guan. motivations for this project. eternal problem of documentation for Chinese temple cults partly quantitative problem normative info lack of concrete (local, personalized) info in most sources Lord Guan relative exception state recognition=>preservation sources

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The cult of Lord Guan

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  1. The cult of Lord Guan

  2. motivations for this project • eternal problem of documentation for Chinese temple cults • partly quantitative problem • normative info • lack of concrete (local, personalized) info in most sources • Lord Guan relative exception • state recognition=>preservation sources • spread of cult=>many (types of) sources • 20th century fieldwork • many anecdotal sources • not the most interesting cult • much rather know more about Wutong and other cults with mediums • strong normative nature sources

  3. aims project • long term history cult allows asking some types of questions • changing hagiography cult • analysis spread over time and space • multiple origins • impact (or not) written traditions • changes in social appeal • role medium practices (esp. spirit writing)

  4. historical figure • Guan Yu 關羽 (?-219) • fled home in Xiezhou解州because of a killing • joined Liu Bei劉備 in 涿州, withZhangFei張飛 among his most loyal supporters • captured and service Cao Cao曹操 200 CE • rejoined Liu Bei, several epic battles • captured by forces Sun Quan孫權 and beheaded 219 CE • paragon of loyalty 忠 (to Liu Bei) and righteousness 義, really a rebel to the rulers of that moment and possibly a murderer

  5. how Sun Quan would have seen it in a HK temple from the movies his modern fate?

  6. Early stages

  7. origins • memorialistcults • Chengdu (immediately after death) • Luoyang (head) • Yueyang (ordinary temple) • not listed in derogatory attacks on medium cults by Daoist writers • largely out of sight until the Tang period

  8. Zhiyi’s arrival at Jade Source Mountain • 2 events • founding of monastery by Zhiyi and a miracle of divine support • local cult for hungry ghosts, which later turns out to be Lord Guan • Zhiyi智顗 (530-598) • connected southern elite • patronage Sui prince forced upon him • retreats to Jade Source Mountain in ca. 592 (in the hills) • builds monastery • explicitly with support local people (pre-617) • his pupil Guanding’s bio (pre-632) mentions divine (but dragon!) support (event 1.) • monastery flourishes • center Tiantai and later early Chan Buddhism • many monks and laypeople pass through

  9. a local cult on Ju River • location execution and grave-hill on 沮 river (far from later monastery)=> close to road (no dates, beyond 219 CE) • general phenomenon cults for hungry hosts (attested in pre-Sui Daoist writings) • first mentions • 802 CE temple for Lord Guan near monastery, deity associated with miraculous building monastery • late 9th century same temple for Third Lad Guan 關三郎, same link monastery • somewhere in 7th-8th century dragon replaced by Lord Guan

  10. modern picture of his not so old grave

  11. Jade Source Monastery • by early Song monastery and cult intimately connected • the most prestigious cult for the deity • possession dragon relics (associated with the salt ponds, more on which later!) • Guan Yu’s historical (?) seal • treasures for advertising • literati • Buddhist origin cult? • local cult incorporated by Buddhist monastery • limited number of early Buddhist foundations • one of the protector deities of B. monasteries by late Ming ≠ Buddhist origins

  12. a demonic figure (early evidence) • original local cult must have been demonic/hungry ghosts, but not properly recorded • 860-873 scare of Third Lad Guan with his demon soldiers causing epidemics • meaning “Third Lad” • Second Lad (erlang) • Young Prince from Triad lore • power of youth • story of violent demonic deity crucial

  13. Daoist origins

  14. the defeat of Chiyou蚩尤 • Chiyou= saltponds of Xiezhou (alr. 3rd century BCE) • miracle Guan Yu (as a general) • Huizong version: dragon, flooding, destroyed, Heavenly Master 張繼先(1092-1127) • Zhenzong version: Chiyou, Yellow Emperor, drought, destroyed, an anonymous Heavenly Master • Huizong version older • floods were a real problem, happened in 1105 • story is not a local story=> dragon (relics at Jade Source Monastery!) • Zhenzong version newer drought fit the Chiyou story, not the local circumstances • Chiyou/Yellow Emperor fits cultic history northern Song • textual reworking of the dragon story

  15. 鹽池 鹽池 漢代的蚩尤 1907年拍攝的南旺蚩尤塚

  16. temples with Daoist connection • 1. only pre-Ming temples connected to Guan Yu’s Daoist titles • 2. note southern dominance (except Xiangning): artefact sources or real phenomenon?

  17. possible historical trajectory • problems of dating • a possible trajectory • Guan Yu as violent deity suited for dealing with demons • Guan Yu adopted as Daoist exorcist general (extensive use in D. ritual manuscripts, no clear early dates) • source of inspiration for recruitment by HM • feedback into use as exorcist general, leading to foundations (small) temples and shrines • like Buddhist connection of minor importance • even less important over time • result growing spread cult and dominance local communities over cultic image • higher titles of king and even emperor made subordinate role in Daoist ritual difficult

  18. Local cult

  19. starting with dates • as always problem of data, but at least we have many dates (for a northern cult) • dates and places allow verification and falsification certain types of hypotheses • preliminary database

  20. a northern cult • Xie centre early cult • Jingmen near Jade Source Mountain • Haiyan has Daoist connection • Shaowu (Fujian) no evidence

  21. analytical comments • northern spread tied to traderoutes (salt-trade?) • few connections to military background, but some to local defense • spread prior to rise vernacular narratives and in regions with low (assumed) literacy • how meaningful are the growth rates vs. economic growth (disc. next slide), based on same sources

  22. comparing rate of spread of two prominent cults “Pre-Ming attestations of Guan Yu shrines and temples” “Pre-Ming attestations of local Eastern Marchmount temples” (preliminary count)

  23. continued spread of the cult • northern cult • present down to rural level • all social/educational groups • spread southward only with specific interest groups • Daoist priests (above) • military staff • merchants • Taiwan special case (still to be studied by me)

  24. curious connections

  25. Folklore&mythology

  26. terminology • mythology? • hard to find: historical record made mythological narratives invisible (absent) • the record partly mythological itself, but in historical format • my preference: narratives/stories that give meaning and explain beyond the specific local context

  27. vernacular traditions • the historical record not basis of the cult • authors inscriptions often refer to the record (normative info) • the vernacular traditions largely postdate rise of cult • could be seen as one form of cult’s larger mythology (only on more abstract level, see later on) • have incorporated some cult-lore (Peach Garden, epiphany deity in Jade Source Monastery, Bluegreen Dragon halberd) • limited relevance vernacular traditions • illustrate deity’s loyalty and righteousness • do not explain deity’s miracles • also many other figures who are not deified

  28. “folklore” • surprisingly separate account from vernacular traditions or historical record • abundant data from 20th century (though not well-recorded from academic perspective ) • earlier confirmations • Christiansource pre-1658:關羽,乃漢時山西解梁人氏,姓施名壽昌。因拖欠差糧,官兵拘納,拒捕不完,殺死官兵,逃出關去,指關為姓,官兵盤詰,詐名關羽. • Liang Zhangju梁章鉅 (1775—1849) records story of Guan Yu’s rescue of damsel in distress by killing local no-good and subsequent fleeing and adoption name Guan • most elements confirmed in morality book early 19th century • similar narratives probably transmitted much earlier as well

  29. making the deity present • imagining the deity • attested from the beginning • Example: “The generalhas a dark date-coloured face, phoenix eyes, three fang-like whiskers and a long beard of one foot and three inches. A sky-blue band around his head and large red court robes, a belt with a jade buckle, dark court shoes, holding a dragon head, with a large halberd. He has the Red-Hare Horsefollowing him. Normally he uses a joyous face, but when he is engaged in cutting off ears and arresting he has an angry face. He arrives from the Thundergate.” (Daoist ritual, anytime before 1400s) • enacting the deity • medium traditions (not well documented) • processions • exorcist ritual traditions (very real) • theatrical traditions (more than others, Lord Guan in theatre is also imagined as a deity)

  30. miracles

  31. rain • unclear: brings rain because he does everything or specifically bringer of rain? • 5: 13 associated with rain • 5: 13 deity’s birthday since early 13th century • deity seen as bringing rain on 5:13 at least since mid 16th century (proverb: whetting his sword) • throughout cult’s history able to ward of rain • 20th century folklore very explicit • how to solve this question • more comparative work • more data (unlikely)

  32. martial figure • general in exorcist ritual practice • well-attested in ritual texts • drives away demons • expulsion Chiyou paradigmatic story • helps against bandits etc. • from beginning cult’s history in the north • against wokouthreat 1555s (led to further spread) • 1813 Eight Trigram’s attack Forbidden Palace

  33. places of contact

  34. a literate deity • surprising: general who is literate • historical Guan Yu wrote one letter (according to 三國志) • later commentary on 三國志 claims he could recite 左傳 • his possible literacy played no role in his personal life or subsequent rise to divinity • prognostication slips ascribed to deity (since late Ming) • spirit writing (since late Ming)

  35. Moral agency

  36. divine punisher • role also inherent in other activities (discussed before) • case book of Xiangtan (1849-1850, some 1851-1852)

  37. morality books • general phenomenon • 太上感應篇 • 功過格 • multiplication through recitation, copying and printing • often revealed through spirit writing

  38. True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經 • oldest extant version in Japanese ms as 關夫子經 (next slides) • general ethics • supported by threat with retribution and direct punishment • I made these words, and I wish that people honour them. Although the words are shallow and obvious, they are of great benefit to your heart. If you ridicule and insult my words, you will be beheaded and dismembered. • common format for maledictions (see Triads)

  39. Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經 • revealed text • explicit on its origins in spirit writing session as evidence on legitimacy as divine words • often rambling text, but rhymed (not according to literary modes) • origins in historical records and folklore (already discussed above) • early 19th century text, always reprinted in 1840 version with a revealed commentary • Guan Yu is given task of supervising morality all over the empire • develops later in even stronger morality texts in which only following his moral injunctions can prevent the end of the world at the command of the Jade Emperor

  40. Some concluding comments

  41. comments • hungry ghost and demon • not primarily a Buddhist or Daoist cult • local cult • loyalty etc. secondary consideration: first and foremost a violent, martial figure • development independent of vernacular traditions • regional basis

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