Period of Détente and start of computer age in 1970s (FC.148)

An Overview of the Cold War and the Start of High Tech Globalization WWII in Europe (FC.136) WWII in Asia (FC.137) Nuclear Arms Race (19545-2001) (FC.144) Start of the Cold War (FC.138) Anatomy of Cold War Crises (FC.139) Nuclear arms race (1945-2001)(FC.142) China under Mao (1949-76) (FC.147A) Israel &the Arabs to 1967 (FC.146.1) U.S. & Latin Am. (FC.143B) Decolon. of SE Asia (FC.140A) Early Cold War (1948-53) (FC.140) Indian indep. (FC.140B) Afr. indep. since 1960 (FC.151) Missed opportunities (1953-6): The Aftermath of Stalin’s death (FC.141) China since Mao (1976- ) (FC.147B) Israel &the Arabs since 1967 (FC.146.2) The Height of the Cold War (1957-72) (FC.143) Period of Détente and start of computer age in 1970s (FC.148) End of the Cold War(19781-91 )(FC.140) Age of high tech globalization & resistance from trad. cultures (1991- ) (FC.140)

Swing Dancing Swing dancing was especially popular in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s and was associated with jazz music of the times. Just as jazz had African and African-American roots, so did much of Swing dancing, although some dances, notably the Balboa, originated in the Anglo-American community. Left: A popular dance from the post war era known as The Astaire, named after the famed Hollywood actor and dancer, Fred Astaire. 2643709

Jitterbugs One of the most popular dances to come out of the African-American community in Harlem, the Lindy, served as the basis for numerous variations that evolved into other swing dances. The term jitterbug, which is popularly associated with a particular dance, actually referred to swing dancers themselves. It was supposedly coined by band leader, Cab Calloway, who said the dancers on the floor looked like a bunch of jitterbugs. 2665304

A brief history of the birth of the computer 3403781

The history of mechanical calculators, forefathers of the computer, goes back to 1642 when Blaise Pascal created an adding machine, the Pascalene (bottom) that automatically carried digits from one position to the next. It had several dials that could be turned with a stylus. Underlying gears turned as each digit was dialed in, the cumulative total displayed in a window above the "keyboard". However, Pascalenes remained little more than curiosity pieces in private parlors until the debut of Thomas De Colmar’s Arithmometer in 1820. Able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, it was the first commercially successful calculator, being the model for calculators into the 1900s. 90736119

Babbage’s Difference Machine. The Englishman Charles Babbage (26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was obsessed with using the steam engine to power a device that would calculate navigational, celestial, and mathematical tables. From 1822 to 1849 he worked on the design for his Difference Machine, which could do four functions (add, subtract, multiply, and divide). He even got a grant from the British government, probably the first government grant for researching computers. Although he never built one, he is often considered the father of the computer. In 1991, to mark the bicentennial of Babbage’s birth, a working Difference Machine (left) was built. To prove that it was feasible to build such a machine in the 19th century, the project used only the technology available then. 90737119

The Jacquard Loom (1825) In 1728, a new weaving device, : the Falcon’s loom (left) used the Frenchman Basile Bouchon's invention of perforated paper rolls, the holes operating as binary on/off switches to determine if a particular color thread was used in that row of fabric. A century later Joseph-Marie Jacquard invented an automatic loom (right) using punched cards to control the patterns in the fabrics in a similar way. Despite worker riots against the replacement of people by these machines, virtually all industrial looms were using this system by 1900. Not only that, it was being applied to other industrial uses, such as riveting patterns on the large steel ships bringing millions of immigrants to America. Just in time, someone found another use for this concept. 90741771 90741798

The Hollerith machine (1890) The 1890 US census provided the impetus for another step toward inventing the computer. Because of the huge influx of immigrants, people figured the 1890 census wouldn’t be finished before the 1900 census came around. To the rescue came the Hollerith machine. Using punch cards like those designed for Jacquard Looms, census takers would punch out chads on the appropriate places for numbers of family members, males, females, etc. Back at the census bureau, secretaries placed the card in an electronic machine with contact points for each space on the card. When the lever was lowered, only tabs for places with missing chads would complete the electronic circuit by touching the electrified plate underneath the card. This would automatically register the appropriate number on a counter. Like the Jacquard loom, this was using a basic binary, on-off, concept that is still central to computer design. 3362420

In 1930, Vannevar Bush at MIT built a large-scale differential analyzer with the additional capabilities of integration and differentiation (left and below). Funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, it was perhaps the largest computational device in the world at that time Another pioneer in the field was Konrad Zuse who, working in his parents’ living room between 1935 and 1938, built the Z-1 machine, a relay computer, using binary arithmetic. During World War II he applied to the German government for funding, but the Nazis thought its development would last longer than the war. After the war he constructed the Z-4 machine at the University of Zurich and founded a computer company that was later absorbed by Siemens Corporation. As pioneering as Zuse’s work was, it was little known outside of a few people and had no real impact on the development of computers. 90736203 3359322

ENIAC (1945) The forefather of today's all-electronic digital computers was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). Built between 1943 and 1945 by two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert for the war department, its purpose was to create a machine to replace all the women (known as "computers”) employed by the army to calculate the complex firing artillery tables. 90738482

The First Computer Bug In 1945 the first computer bug was discovered: a moth that was beaten to death in the jaws of a computer relay. Technicians reported they “debugged” the computer, giving rise to today’s common terminology. The moth now resides in the Smithsonian. No Getty image. Please get the rights to this photo, if not for me, then for the moth.

To program a modern computer, you type out a program with statements like: Circumference = 3.14 * diameter To reprogram the ENIAC you had to rearrange the patch cords that you can observe on the left, and the settings on some of the 3000 switches that you can observe on the right. 53367190 50615308

Vacuum Tubes Relaying the signals in ENIAC was a vast array of 19,000 vacuum tubes. In the mid 1800s a German, Heinrich Geissler (1814-79) carried out experiments with vacuum tubes and found that a current passed through an enclosed gas tube, which contained a partial vacuum and one of a series of gases, would produce a brightly colored glow. He found that different gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, produced different colors. His devices were known as Geissler Tubes. In 1878, the Englishman, Sir William Crookes (1832-1919), expanded on Geissler's research and found that an electrically charged cathode in a tube (left) would produce streams of what he called "cathode rays.” This would also help lead to the invention of television in 1927. But that’s another story. 90737119

Unfortunately, vacuum tubes used a lot of energy, and produced a lot of heat, causing them to burn out quickly. If one vacuum tube on the ENIAC went bad, technicians had to search through its 19,000 vacuum tubes until finding the problem. This didn’t make computer design and usage very efficient. 89858318

The Transistor (1947) In 1947,William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain invented the "transfer resistance" device, AKA the transistor, which would revolutionize the computer and give it the reliability that could not be achieved with vacuum tubes. The key innovation was a valve that let a weak signal control a much larger flow much as a faucet controls the flow of water. This was a much more elegant solution to the needs of electronics, being small and using much less power than the vacuum tube. Since it used so little power, it also produced hardly any heat, thus giving it a longer life than a vacuum tube. The transistor dramatically expanded the possibilities for further computer development. Left: The size of the vacuum tube (L) compared to the transistor. Right: Transistor inventors (L-R, John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain 50580706 3231653

In addition to the computer, the transistor created a revolution in miniaturizing consumer electronics, notably the transistor radio. Previously, the radio was a large heavy device, which did encourage more togetherness as the whole family would listen to the it together. By contrast, the transistor radio, such as the one shown from 1961, was small, cheap and portable. This allowed everyone to listen privately to his chosen program, even in the midst of a crowd, much like people do with cell phones today. 73951668 50597880 73951668

Since ENIAC and other early computers, such as ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC, and MANIAC, were so huge, future computers were envisioned to grow in size with their capabilities. A prime example was the villainous computer HAL (the letters IBM moved back one position each in the alphabet) from the 1968 movie "2001: A Space Odyssey”. Of course, the real trend for computers, as in other areas of technology, has been progressive miniaturization. No Getty image. Please get the rights to this photo. 50376881

Computer Games Two women play Nim, one of the first computer games, at a public exhibition in 1951. If only they had known where this would lead for their grandchildren. 3091201

Automats Introduced in Philadelphia in 1902, the automat became a quick and popular form of urban dining during the first half of the twentieth century. Diners would insert a number of coins into a slot next to a window showing the desired item. They could then lift the window, which operated on a hinge, and remove their food, which was a cold dish such as a sandwich or pie. In many automats, customers could also buy hot food served cafeteria style from steam tables in the back. Despite what the name suggests, automats required a large staff for preparing the food in the kitchen and replacing sold items. Automats reached the peak of their popularity in the 1940s and 50s, but faded from the scene with the advent of the suburbs, increased reliance on the automobile, and drive-in fast food restaurants, such as MacDonald's. 3240426

Postwar fashions The austerity of wartime carried over into the late 1940s as it took time for most economies to recover and make clothes and fabrics available and affordable. Thus skirts and dresses tended to be shorter and tighter to conserve on cloth. 50511003

Adding to this trend was the influx of women into the workforce during the war. Skirts and dresses had to be more comfortable and practical for women in office jobs, while Rosie the Riveter wore totally functional dungarees in the factory. 2696642

Although not a fashion statement at first, teenage girls (AKA Bobbysoxers) continued this trend into the 1950s, making jeans and slacks only become more prominent as part of a woman’s wardrobe over the decades as society has become less formal. 3166303 3093891

Postwar austerity applied to food as well, which was rationed even more strictly in Britain, as it exported grain to keep Germany from starving. As a result, people were generally fitter and trimmer, which clothing styles also reflected. 50511002

Not surprisingly, when economies recovered and fabrics became more readily available in the late 1940s, dresses became longer and fuller, a trend that continued into the 1950s. 90767374

One fashion accessory that has disappeared as a must for both ladies and gentlemen is the hat. There was a time in Western culture where a woman’s hair was kept from public view to the same extent as is still the case in traditional Muslim society. Even as women’s hair became more visible in high society, modesty still demanded ladies wear a hat. As a result, hat styles changed as regularly as dress styles, the fashion capital for both being Paris. Below are the spring hats for 1944. Growing informality in society saw the demise of hats, both men’s and women’s, in the 1960s. Apparently, after that, no one seems to have cared how they appeared to the rest of society. 2659749

The automatic washing machine During the twentieth century, the days of pounding laundry on rocks by the local stream or river finally ended for most housewives in the Western world. Although the electric washing machine had been around since 1904 and was fairly common by 1930, it had to go through several developmental changes before becoming the automatic washer we are familiar with. One major feature was the spin washer, first introduced in the 1930s. Previously, water had to be wrung out with a separate manual (and later power) wringer. By 1940, there were washing machines in 60% of America’s 25 million households. In 1947 General Electric introduced what we would recognize as the first modern automatic top-loading washer. By 1953 sales of automatic washing machines had surpassed those of wringer washers. There’s no way to quantify the impact of the washing machine on personal hygiene and health. Similarly, the reduction in the drudgery of washing clothes by hand and the resulting freedom it provided women was immense and has even been compared to modern birth control in its impact on the Women’s Liberation movement in the 1970s. 2695688

(Nearly) instant photography: the Polaroid camera (1947) In 1947 Polaroid announced the invention of the one-step camera and started marketing it the next year. Early models could develop a picture in one minute, with instant development finally available in 1979. Such a camera ideally suited a society on the move that increasingly demanded instant results. Although the pictures were not professional quality, they suited the average American family wanting to capture a moment and not wanting to wait a week or two to review it. 50517080

The 33⅓ rpm (AKA LP or long-playing) record (1948) One of the prime features in the history of technology is miniaturization: packing new technology into smaller and more portable forms. Such was the case with the replacement of the 78 rpm with the 33⅓ rpm record, also known as the LP or Long Playing record. Although first introduced by RCA in 1931, production halted after two years, largely because of the Great Depression. Columbia resumed development of the LP in 1941, but World War II delayed its introduction to the market until 1948. While the older 78 rpm format could only hold four minutes of material, the 33⅓ rpm record typically held 30 to 45 minutes over two sides of a disc. This proved especially appealing to classical music fans who didn’t have to switch records several times in the course of a symphony. In the picture to the left, a man holds a stack of LPs next to a stack of 78’s containing the same amount of music, showing the huge degree of miniaturization this revolution made possible. Some record turntables came equipped with record-changers (introduced in the 1920s), which could automatically play an entire stack of records, double albums often had sides 1 and 2 backed with sides 4 and 3 respectively, so listeners could listen to two sides of the album without having to turn over the record. 53377631

US has A-bomb & $, but public is still isolationist Europe is heavily damaged Europeans lose faith in leaders from depression and war. Popularity of communism on the rise throughout Europe Stalin’s stall tactics @Potsdam Stalin takes over E. Europe Churchill’s “Iron” Curtain Speech Truman Doctrine & Marshall Plan Stalin suspicious of U.S. U.S. suspicious of Stalin SU hurt badly, but has world’s largest army Long delay to launch D-Day U.S. econ. aid to revive econ’s & support democracies Stalin tries to sabotage M. Plan FC.138 THE START OF THE COLD WAR (1945-48) End of World War II (FC.136) Rus. Rev Hostility b/w Capit. West & Comm. SU (FC.130) Stalin’s growing power in 1930s (FC.130B) Two pronged U.S. strategy U.S. to stop Soviet expansion across globe: Military: Eisenhower Doctrine to stop communist aggression Cold War: Period of intense competition b/w U.S. & USSR stopping short of direct conflict (FC.139)

FC.76 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE AND ITS IMPACT (c.1400-1550) Renaissance largely defined by four new ideas  Transition from medieval to modern civilization Secularism: Belief this world & life are worth studying & living for now, not just as preparation for afterlife Individualism: Belief that the individual alone, not just groups of people (e.g., guilds), can accomplish great things on their own Italy located on top old Roman civilization Relative freedom of expression in Ital. cities Humanism: Belief that humans are not helpless pawns in the divine plan, but capable of their own great accomplishments Italians such as Petrarch & Dante revive Roman & Grk studies in 1300s Florentine banking family, Medici, especially patronizes the arts Florence the early center of Italian Renaissance Literature (e.g., history & polit. science) promoting more secular view of the world Architecture Using classical forms, e.g, dome  Sta. Maria del Fiore in Florence & St. Peter’s in Rome Thriving urban culture in Northern Italy to support the Renaissance Skepticism: Belief in the need to challenge accepted (esp. Church & classical) authorities Contact with Muslim & Byzantine civ’s (FC.62) Money for patronizing the arts (FC.75) Printing press spreads ideas quickly & accurately (FC.74) Age of Exploration Drawing on ancient Grk. geogr. texts individuals challenge old theories & try to create an accurate world map (FC.81) Protestant Reformation which broke Chr. unity in W. Europe  New patterns of social, political, economic & scientific thought (FC.84) Rev. in painting  Much more accurate eye for detail (FC.77A) Scientific Revolution during the Enlightenment building on Renaissance research & paving the way for the Industrial Revolution (FC.97)

Period of Détente and start of computer age in 1970s (FC.148)