Isolationism to Imperial Power: US Foreign Policy to 1919

1. Isolationism to Imperial Power: US Foreign Policy to 1919 PO 326: American Foreign Policy

2. Shifting Gears • In the first section of the course, we examined models of foreign policy decision making. In the second section, we seek to understand the American foreign policy experience by engaging in a survey of its history • At several points during this survey, we will apply some of the approaches discussed in the first section to gain a more complete understanding of the decision-making that shaped our foreign policy experience

3. Washington’s Admonition • “Steer clear of foreign entanglements” Why? • The history of relations between the European states to 1789 was one of conflict and duplicitous diplomacy – in addition to moral considerations, Washington feared that the fledgling US would fall prey to stronger European states • Indeed, US independence was achieved as a result of power politics between UK and France • Unique socio-geographic position of US seemed conducive to isolation from Europe (DeTocqueville)

4. Washington’s Admonition • However, continued European involvement in the Americas indicated that the European threat was real despite geographic distance • Example: XYZ Affair and undeclared war of 1798 • Washington’s admonition thus became the basis for a 19th Century foreign policy that largely sought to carve out a hemispheric niche for the new state, to allow it to grow in isolation from the influence of Europe • Isolationist sentiment, thus defined, formed the underpinnings of American foreign relations even after US involvement in World War I

5. Carving Out a Niche: The Louisiana Purchase to the Monroe Doctrine • Louisiana Purchase (1803) • Assented to by Napoleon to fund his war in Europe • More than doubled the size of the US • Seemingly brought added security by eliminating the direct influence of a major European power • War of 1812 against UK: Extension of Napoleonic Wars • Main issues: British restrictions on US trade with France, impressment of US sailors, designs on northern US territories • US suffers some key losses (Canada), but victory at New Orleans and Treaty of Ghent secures sole US navigation of Mississippi, freedom of seas, and end of de facto British encroachment – distance remains important factor

6. Carving Out a Niche: The Louisiana Purchase to the Monroe Doctrine • The Monroe Doctrine (1823): The Beginnings of American Expansionism • Revolts in Spanish and Portuguese South/Central America invite renewed European involvement following the fall of Napoleon • Monroe recognizes the independence of new states and warns Europe against involvement in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere • “The American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subject to future colonization by any European powers” • Due in large part to weakness of European states following Napoleonic Wars • Basis of US foreign policy and hegemony in region (subject to interpretation)

7. American Expansionism – Manifest Destiny and the Mexican War • Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, in the absence of European involvement, the US began to forcibly press its territorial interests in contiguous areas • American Indian tribes in the southern, western, and northeastern frontiers were pushed back (Jackson, Harrison) • By the 1840s, social commentators and politicians had begun speaking of the need for the US to expand its borders to the Pacific (“Manifest Destiny,” physical security, resource acquisition) • Polk Administration: Actively sought acquisition of Oregon and Northern Mexican territories • Border dispute over Rio Grande region (involving newly-annexed Texas) provided impetus for war with Mexico • Mexican War, 1844 • Decisive American victory; Taylor marches on Mexico City to secure favorable terms • US annexes future states of New Mexico, Arizona, California, and Colorado • Major gains, but at great eventual cost (new territories, slavery, Civil War)

8. The Spanish-American War: The US Becomes a Major Power • Little was done in regards to foreign policy in the periods immediately preceding and following the Civil War • By the end of the 19th Century, the US sought to expand its commercial and political interests by removing the last vestiges of Spanish power from the hemisphere • Spanish-American War, 1898 • US entry into imperialist era (extension of manifest destiny?) • Alleged Spanish mistreatment of subjects in Cuba, dubious sinking of USS Maine used as pretexts for war • First employment of US sea power in international conflict • Decisive American victory leads to annexation of Puerto Rico and Philippines, protectorate over Cuba

9. Early 20th Century Foreign Policy • American hegemony over Western Hemisphere is secured • US uses “gunboat diplomacy” to secure economic interests in “banana republics” • US involvement in Chinese economic ventures (Hay and the “Open Door” Policy) • Renewed European conflicts observed by US, but no direct participation, despite “major power” status • TR’s involvement in resolution of Russo-Japanese war • Avoidance of European crises over African colonies

10. World War I • When war broke out in Europe in 1914, it was seemingly the result of the same deceit and aggression that Washington warned against, and the US sought to avoid active involvement • Wilson’s slogan for 1916: “He kept us out of war” • However, the US was providing economic (and some military) assistance to the Triple Alliance (UK, France, Russia) • Despite efforts to keep out of bloody war, several actions by belligerents harmed American interests • German-Mexican designs on US (Zimmerman Note – 1916) • Sinking of Lusitania and resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany

11. World War I • In response to these developments, Wilson and Congress decided in 1917 to send troops to fight in Europe for the first time in US history • American Expeditionary Force (AEF) proved decisive for Allies in European stalemate • US becomes the predominant world power • Treaty of Versailles – called for collective security via a League of Nations; however, League would fail within twenty years

12. Lessons from US Foreign Policy Through WWI • Washington’s Admonition against foreign entanglements spurs not only isolationism in the 19th Century, but a foreign policy designed to achieve hemispheric hegemony or “independence” • After hegemony secured, US exercises local control, but does not get directly involved in the affairs of Europe until European states infringe upon US interests and control of the hemisphere; this includes involvement in WWI • WWI makes the US the predominant world power – how would it react?