Essay Research & Writing

Essay Research & Writing CHST 540 May 24, 2005

What interests you? What has lots of source material available? (If you’re really thinking strategically:) What will be useful for the exam? Choosing a topic

Finding Sources • Start with the bibliography provided in the course outline • If there isn’t a lot of material on your topic, or you aren’t sure which of the sources mentioned are most relevant, speak with me • Search library catalogues: Ryerson, Toronto Public (www.tpl.toronto.on.ca) and the University of Toronto (www.library.utoronto.ca)

Finding Sources (cont’d) • Search Intelligence and National Security and International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence • Online access to Intelligence and National Security only dates back to 2000; for issues published 1985-99 go to John W. Graham Library (Trinity College, U of T) • Check footnotes/bibliographies for other sources

Researching • Compile a list of relevant materials • First consult the most targeted material (usually journal articles/essays) • Then broaden your research - to specific books, more general books & articles, etc. • Read intros and conclusions before reading the body of a work • Mine intros and conclusions for all they’re worth

How much research? • Enough to sustain your argument • You shouldn’t be left with too many unanswered questions • Minimum 5 sources • Using more sources can enrich your paper

Determining your argument • If you haven’t done so already, phrase your topic as a question • Consider the evidence • Draw conclusions and frame these into an answer (your thesis) to your original question

Planning your essay • Structure will depend partly on the type of essay you’re writing: ‘Compare and contrast’ - identify the main areas you will be comparing/contrasting; assess each in turn

Planning your essay (cont’d) ‘Evaluate’ - identify and address relevant criteria before making a judgment ‘Discuss’ - consider arguments for or against the statement being examined

Writing the introduction • Broad > narrow • Start with a general statement about your topic • With each following sentence, focus more on your argument, ending with your thesis • Keep it succinct: too much can be confusing

Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph i.e. Occasionally, signals intelligence was so clear as to suggest immediately a course of action. i.e. In addition to measuring successes, signals intelligence could point to failures within the Allied organization. Organizing paragraphs

Organizing paragraphs (cont’d) • Make transitions between paragraphs as smooth as possible - one should flow into the next i.e. …The psychological effect of Yamamoto’s death upon the Japanese populace as a whole, not to mention that of those in the armed forces, must have been great. Signals intelligence was not always employed to such spectacular effect…..

Organizing paragraphs (cont’d) • Chronology may partly determine your paragraph order; but remember these are analytical papers, so theme may take precedence over chronology • Save your strongest points for last - build up to something

Don’t just quote facts; include opinions and analysis Choose quotations that are well written You can paraphrase and footnote if it sounds better ALWAYS FOOTNOTE/REFERENCE WORDS AND IDEAS THAT AREN’T YOUR OWN Strive for seamlessness Integrating quotations

Seamlessness • Useful verbs: argues, believes, considers, contends, demonstrates, illustrates, maintains, observes, notes, etc. i.e. Even historians of today have not abandoned such melodramatic judgments, contending that Midway “caused the Rising Sun to set.”

Seamlessness (cont’d) • Phrases: according to, in X’s view, etc. i.e. In Layton’s view, Yamamoto’s death was “a trauma for most Japanese.”

Seamlessness • Work from the quotation itself to find something that flows into it. i.e. The consequences of this were “so simple and yet so shattering that it can be summed up in a sentence: American strike-forces, primarily submarines, ultimately destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet.”

Go over your transitions between paragraphs Ensure your quotations are well integrated Watch out for repeated words (get a friend to check for them); replace them with synonyms Eliminate colloquial language i.e. replace ‘says’ with ‘observes’, ‘states’, etc. Polishing your language

Verb and subject don’t agree (usually in long sentences) Wrong: The tension between Japanese and Americans were rising. Right: The tension between Japanese and Americans was rising. Common mistakes

Common mistakes • Run-on sentences i.e. Churchill found the intelligence services in a fragmented state when he took his place as Prime Minister, for instance Sigint, espionage and counter espionage lacked any adequate means of co-ordination, each suffering from internal confusion, indeed the rivalries in counter espionage between Kell’s MI5 and the special branch at Scotland Yard were proving to be highly counter productive.

Its versus it’s Its (possessive) means belonging to it. i.e. The dog wagged its tail. It’s (conjunction) means it is. i.e. It’s time to go. Than (NOT then) is used in comparisons i.e. His book is more interesting than hers. Common mistakes (cont’d)

Common mistakes (cont’d) • Between ten and fifteen (and, NOT to) • Affect versus effect It greatly affected intelligence procedures. [verb] It had many effects on intelligence. [noun] It effected great changes in intelligence procedures. [verb, meaning ‘to prompt’, ‘to bring about’, ‘to catalyze’]

Common mistakes (cont’d) • Use commas around ‘however’ i.e. Kahn argues, however, that German spies…. i.e. However, Kahn argues that German….

Narrow > broad Restate your thesis (try to vary your wording somewhat from the thesis statement in your intro paragraph) Discuss the wider implications of your argument/topic Writing the conclusion

Include all sources you have consulted for your paper, even those you haven’t directly quoted from Be consistent Sample: Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) Bibliography

Tips • Start early • Read lots and take detailed notes • Spend time planning before you write • Ensure your argument is clear • Choose a logical structure

More tips • Spend most of your words discussing, arguing and analyzing, not merely describing what happened • Leave lots of time to edit • Have someone else proofread your work - they’ll likely catch more mistakes than you will since they’re less familiar with it

Look online - for example http://www.sou.edu/history/carney/writing.htm or http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/history/course-sites/hist213/writing.htm or http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/ Consult the Ryerson Writing Centre (Mon-Thurs, 3:30 to 6:30, RD Besse Commons, 2nd floor, Library) Speak with/email me (the earlier, the better!) - aluce@ryerson.ca For further help:

Essay Research & Writing