Topic 8: MEMORY: How the MIND works

1. Topic 8:MEMORY: How the MIND works

2. Have you ever wondered • how you manage to remember information for a test? • How you are able to create new memories, store them for periods of time, and recall them when they are needed. • This is due to our MEMORY. • But what exactly is memory? And How are memories formed?

3. Our Mind is like the Computer Retrieve Input Store the information Save it

4. We are walking computers

5. What is memory? • Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information. • There are three major processes involved in memory: • encoding, • storage and • retrieval.

6. What is memory? • Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information) • Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) • Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity) • In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. • Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. • Most of the stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. • The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

7. What is Memory? • Memory is the core to most of our cognitive process. Because…. • Memory is the storing of learned information, and the ability to recall that which has been stored. • The mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experience. • Research indicates that the ability to retain information is fairly uniform among normal individuals what differs is the degree to which persons learn or take account of something to begin with and the kind and amount of detail that is retained.

8. How does Memory relate to learning? • Memory and learning are the basis of all our knowledge and abilities. • Learning – is the process of acquiring new knowledge, while…. • Memory – helps retain the learned knowledge. • Thus, memory is the brain’s ability to acquire, store, retain and retrieve information.

9. Types of memory • Memory can be classified into 2 primary types: • Explicit memory - Declarative memory (conscious memory) • Implicit memory – procedural memory (automatic & unconscious)

10. Explicit Memory & Implicit Memory • Explicit Memory (can be divided into STM & LTM) • It allows a person to recall consciously & describe verbally information, e.g. facts, people etc • Types of memory that contains info re specific events that happen at a specific time & place. • Forming & storing memory are associated with past experience/knowledge. • Implicit Memory (repetition priming, conditioning & motor skills) • Previous experience assist a person to perform task without any conscious awareness of the past experience. • Through repetition priming & skill learning – a person would become better on task performance

11. How our MIND works Short Term Memory Long Term Memory SENSORY MEMORY *fleeting *less than one second * working memory * less than 20 seconds *unlimited *stable

12. Information Processing Model: The Stage Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

13. Sensory register Part of memory that receives all the information a person senses from the environment and stores it fleetingly. Short term memory A part where new information is stored temporarily, until it is either lost or placed into long term memory Also known as working memory, where a decision must be made to discard information or to transfer it to permanent storage, in long-term memory. Long Term memory Part of memory which has unlimited capacity & can hold information indefinitely. the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which information may be stored permanently and from which it may be later retrieved. Types of Memory

14. Short term memory • A temporary storage area that is used for unprocessed visual or auditory information that last up to 30 sec. • STM -limited capacity - up to 7 pieces of independent information. • Memory loss is due to decaying of information. • 3 basic operations in STM: • Iconic memory –ability to hold visual image • Acoustic memory – the ability to hold sounds • Working memory –process that temporarily store & manipulate information for immediate use

15. Long Term memory • Part of memory which has unlimited capacity & can hold information indefinitely. • LTM can be divide into : • Episodic memory – memory of specific events or episodes that an individual experienced • Semantic memory – memory that includes knowledge of words meaning and is an essential element of language.

16. So how do we retain information in our Long-Term Memory ? 1. Organise the information properly 2. Rehearsal (i.e repetition) 3. Elaboration

17. How Is Information Organized In Memory? • The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to • make decisions, • interact with others, • solve problems, etc • Exactly how are information organized in memory is unclear, but researchers do know that these memories are arranged in groups.

18. Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow

19. How Is Information Organized In Memory? • Clustering is used to organize related information into groups. • Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall. • For example, consider the following group of words: Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow • Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away and try to recall and list these words. • How did you group the words when you listed them? • Most people will list using three different categories: color, furniture and fruit.

20. How Is Information Organized In Memory? • One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model. • This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories  i.e. a memory of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that place. • For example, thinking about a certain campus building might trigger memories of attending classes, studying and socializing with peers.

21. Memory Retrieval • Memory retrieval is important for our daily life, e.g. from remembering where you parked your car to learning new skills. • Once information has been encoded and stored in memory, it must be retrieved in order to be used. • There are many factors that can influence how memories are retrieved from long-term memory. • In order to fully understand this process, it is important to understand exactly what retrieval is and what are the factors that can impact how memories are retrieved. • Memory Retrieval is a process of accessing stored memories. • Retrieval cues can be use  can have an impact on how information is retrieved. • A retrieval cue - a clue/prompt used to trigger the retrieval of longterm memory.

22. What Is Memory Retrieval? • Four basic ways in which information can be pulled from long-term memory. • Recall: Type of memory retrieval involves being able to access the information without being cued. For example, answering a question on a fill-in-the-blank test is a good example of recall. • Recollection: Type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing memory, often utilizing logical structures, partial memories, narratives or clues. For example, writing an answer on an essay exam often involves remembering bits on information, and then restructuring the remaining information based on these partial memories. • Recognition: This type of memory retrieval involves identifying information after experiencing it again. For example, taking a multiple choice quiz requires that you recognize the correct answer out of a group of available answers. • Relearning: This type of memory retrieval involves relearning information that has been previously learned. This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve information in the future and can improve the strength of memories.

23. Problems with Retrieval • Not every retrieval process works perfectly. • Have you ever felt like you knew the answer to a question, but couldn't quite remember the information? • This phenomenon is known as a 'tip of the tongue' experience. You might feel certain that this information is stored somewhere in your memory, but you are unable to access and retrieve it. • Schacter (2001) said that these experiences are extremely common, typically occurring at least once each week for most younger individuals and two to four times per week for elderly adults.

24. Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips 1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying. 2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions. 3. Structure and organize the information you are studying. 4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information. 5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying. 6. Relate new information to things you already know. 7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall. 8. Teach new concepts to another person. 9. Pay extra attention to difficult information. 10. Vary your study routine.

25. Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips • Focus your attention on the materials you are studying. Attention is a major components of memory. For information to move from short-term memory into long-term memory need to actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music and other diversions. 2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions. According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of session's gives you the time you need to adequately process the information. Those who study regularly remember the material far better than those who did all of their studying in one marathon session. 3. Structure and organize the information you are studying. Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters. S0, structure & organize the materials you are studying. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes/textbook readings to help group related concepts.

26. Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips 4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information. • A mnemonic is simply a way to remember informatio a technique used to aid in recall. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember with a common item that you are very familiar with (rhyme). Use a rhyme, song/joke to help remember. 5. Elaborate & rehearse the information you are studying. • In order to recall information, you need to encode what you are studying into long-term memory  use elaborative rehearsal. An example of this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition of that term and then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating this process a few times, your recall of the information will be far better.

27. Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips 6. Relate new information to things you already know. • Establishing relationships between new ideas and previously existing memories, When you are studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information relates to things that you already know. 7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall. • Many benefit from visualizing the information they study  focus on the photos, charts, graphics etc. If you do not have visual cues to help, try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes/use highlighter/pens in different colours to group related ideas in your notes. 8. Teach new concepts to another person. • Research suggests that reading out loud can improves memory of the material or teaching new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or study partner

28. Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips 9. Pay extra attention to difficult information. • Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning or end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the position of information can play a role in recall, which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy is to try restructuring the information so it will be easier to remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept, devote some extra time to memorizing the information. 10. Vary your study routine. • Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you are accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot to study. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing the information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.

29. FORGETTING

30. Why do we sometimes forget what we have learnt ? 1. Not properly stored / studied 2. Fading (lack of rehearsal) 3. Too much cramming

31. Limits & Failure of memory • Important for us to understand how our memory succeeds and fails because it helps us to uncover the limits of memory in our everyday life. • Types of memory • Good memory • Autobiographical Memory • Prospective Memory • Memory across lifespan • Eyewitness memory • False Memories • Memory damage

32. Limits & Failure of memory • Types of memory - • Good memory – we can recognize easily using visual stimuli, but poor recall for pictures and faces. • Autobiographical Memory – recall personal events especially those that are emotionally based. • Prospective Memory – remembering to do things or failure to do so rather than remembering past events or facts. • Memory across lifespan – our memory improves as we get older, but slower around 65 years old.

33. Limits & Failure of memory • Types of memory - • Eyewitness memory – memory details of events we just saw is often difficult • False Memories – the questions is whether a memory is genuine or distorted due to misleading questions or information. • Memory damage – loss of memory due to brain damage through infection, stroke or head injury

34. What is Forgetting? • When Memory Fails? • Forgetting typically involves a failure in memory retrieval. While the information is somewhere in your long-term memory, you are not able to actually retrieve and remember it. • Forgetting (retention loss) refers to • apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. • a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. • It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that ensures that relevant memories are recalled. • Forgetting can be reduced by repetition and/or more elaborate cognitive processing of information.

35. The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve:What is Forgetting? • Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (Father of Memory) Research was one of the first to scientifically study forgetting  used himself as the subject. • Pioneered experimental study of memory, and discovered the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. • In order to test for new information, Ebbinghaus tested his memory for periods of time ranging from 20 minutes to 31 days. He then published his findings in 1885 in Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.

36. EFC revealed a relationship between forgetting and time. • How quickly these memories are lost depend on: • how the information was learned • how frequently it was rehearsed • The forgetting curve also showed that forgetting does not continue to decline until all of the information is lost. • At a certain point, the amount of forgetting levels off. What exactly does this mean? It indicates that information stored in long-term memory is surprisingly stable.

37. The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

38. Why Forgot? • Elizabeth Loftus, has identified four major reasons why people forget: • retrieval failure • Interference • failure to store • motivated forgetting

39. Why Forgot? 1. Retrieval Failure • Decay theory - explain why some retrieval fails  i.e. a memory trace is created every time a new theory is formed. • Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. • Forgetting is simply an inability to retrieve a memory. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost. • decay theory • passage of time  forgetting • does not explain all instances of forgetting

40. 2. Interference • Interference theory suggests that some memories compete & interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur. • 2 basic types of interference: • Proactive interference • is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory. • Retroactive interference • occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information.

41. 3. Failure to Store • We also forget information because it never actually made it into long-term memory. • Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-term memory. • E.g: Details on your 20 cents & 50 cent coin • Only details necessary for distinguishing the value other coins were encoded into your long-term memory. 4. Motivated Forgetting • Sometimes, we actively work to forget memories, esp those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. • The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are: • suppression, a conscious form of forgetting • repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.

42. Motivated forgetting • Motivated forgetting referring to a psychological defence mechanism in which people forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously. • There are times when memories are reminders of unpleasant experiences that make people angry, sad, anxious, ashamed or afraid. • Motivated forgetting is a method in which people protect themselves by blocking the recall of these anxiety-arousing memories. • E.g: if something reminds a person of an unpleasant event, his or her mind may steer towards unrelated topics. This could induce forgetting without being generated by an intention to forget, making it a motivated action.

43. TASK Read the following & Discuss the answers

44. Neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot was the first to do research into hysteria as a psychological disorder in the late 19th century. Sigmund Freud, Joseph Breuer, and Pierre Janet continued with the research that Charcot began on hysteria. These three psychologists determined that hysteria was an intense emotional reaction to some form of severe psychological disturbance, and they proposed that incest and other sexual traumas were the most likely cause of hysteria. The treatment that Freud, Breuer, and Pierre agreed upon was named the ‘’talking cure’’ and was a method of encouraging patients to recover and discuss their painful memories. During this time, Janet created the term disaociation which is referred to as a lack of integration amongst various memories. He used dissociation to describe the way in which traumatizing memories are stored separately from other memories. The publication of Freud’s famous paper, “the Aetiology of Hysteria”, in 1896 led to much controversy regarding the topic of these traumatic memories. Freud stated that neurosiswere caused by repressed sexual memories, which suggested that incest and sexual abuse must be common throughout upper and middle class Europe. The psychological community did not accept Freud’s ideas, and years passed without further research on the topic.It was during World War 1 and Worls War II that interest in memory disturbances was piqued again. During this time, many cases of memory loss appeared among war veterans, especially those who had experienced shell shock. Hypnosis and drugs became popular for the treatment of hysteria during the war. The term post traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) was introduced upon the appearance of similar cases of memory disturbances from veterans of the Korean War. Forgetting, or the inability to recall a portion of a traumatic event, was considered a key factor for the diagnosis of PTSD. • Ann Burgess and Lynda Holmstrom looked into trauma related memory loss in rape victims during the 1970s. This began a large outpouring of stories related to childhood sexual abuse. It took until 1980 to determine that memory loss due to all severe traumas was the same set of processes. The idea of motivated forgetting began with the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in 1894. Nietzshe and Sigmund Freud had similar views on the idea of repression of memories as a form of self-preservation. Nietzsche wrote that man must forget in able to move forward. He stated that this process is active, in that we forget specific events as a defense mechanism.

45. The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain. In this lateral view of the human brain, the frontal lobe is at left, the occipital lobe at right, and the temporal and parietal lobes have largely been removed to reveal the hippocampus underneath. Occipital lobe Frontal Lobe Critical thinking & problem solving Frontal cortex  area of the cortex that controls personality and the ability to carry out plans

46. MOTIVATED FORGETTING • MF occurs as a result of activity that occurs within the prefrontal cortex(i.e. the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), intraparietal sulcus (IS) , dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DPC) and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex VPC)). • also associated with stopping unwanted actions, which confirms the hypothesis that the suppression of unwanted memories and actions follow a similar inhibitory process. These regions are also known to have executive functions within the brain. E.g: • AAC  has functions linked to motivation and emotion. • IS  functions that include coordination between perception and motor activities, visual attention, symbolic numerical processing. • DPC plans complex cog activities & processes decision making.

47. MOTIVATED FORGETTING • Another key brain structure involved in motivated forgetting is the hippocampus responsible for the formation and recollection of memories. • When the process of motivated forgetting happens  meaning that we actively attempt to suppress our unwanted memories, the prefrontal cortex exhibits higher activity than baseline, while suppressing hippocampal activity at the same time. • The executive areas which control motivation and decision-making lessen the functioning of the hippocampus in order to stop the recollection of the selected memories that the subject has been motivated to forget.

48. SCL • Discuss the following: • What are the differences between explicit memory & implicit memory? Examples • What are the differences between Episodic memory & Semantic memory? Examples • Why do we fail to remember? • What are the differences between Ebbinghaus theory, Decay theory & Interference theory . • Find out tip on “How Not to Forget Things”!