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Scientific Method

Scientific Method. Scientific Method. 1 st –make observations 2 nd – ask questions 3 rd – come up with possible explanations 4 th – perform your experiment 5 th – analyze your data 6 th – make conclusions. IT IS WRITTEN IN AN IF …. AND … THEN …. FORMAT. IF = HYPOTHESIS

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Scientific Method

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  1. Scientific Method

  2. Scientific Method • 1st –make observations • 2nd – ask questions • 3rd – come up with possible explanations • 4th – perform your experiment • 5th – analyze your data • 6th – make conclusions

  3. IT IS WRITTEN IN AN IF….AND…THEN…. FORMAT. IF = HYPOTHESIS AND= HOW YOU WILL TEST YOUR HYPOTHESIS THEN= EXPECTED OR PREDICTED RESULTS. OR IF….THEN…BECAUSE…. IF = HOW YOU WILL TEST YOUR HYPOTHESIS THEN= EXPECTED OR PREDICTED RESULTS BECAUSE= HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT

  4. IF…THIS IS TRUE AND..WE DO THIS THEN…THIS IS WHAT WILL HAPPEN

  5. WHAT VARIABLES ARE INVOVLED IN AN EXPERIMENT? INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE CONTROLLED VARIABLES (CONSTANTS) IN A CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT YOU HAVE A CONTROL GROUP AND AN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

  6. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE THE VARIABLE THAT IS BEING CHANGED OR MANIPULATED

  7. DEPENDENT VARIABLE THE RESPONDING VARIABLE; OR THE EFFECT.

  8. CONTROLLED VARIABLES OR CONSTANTS ALL VARIABLES THAT REMAIN THE SAME THROUGHOUT THE EXPERIMENT.

  9. Control Group A group that is identical to the experimental group in every way, except the control group is not exposed to the independent variable, so you can compare the groups.

  10. Pure Science vs. Applied Science

  11. APPLIED SCIENCE • DOING RESEARCH TO MAKE DISCOVERIES THAT WILL HAVE AN IMMEDIATE EFFECT IN PEOPLE’S LIVES. • FOR EX: SCIENTISTS STUDYING THE STRUCTURE OF THE AIDS VIRUS OR THE “BIRD FLU” VIRUS ARE CONTRIBUTING TO EFFORTS TO MAKE VACCINES.

  12. PURE SCIENCE • DOING RESEARCH SIMPLY BECAUSE THEY ARE CURIOUS ABOUT HOW THE NATURAL WORLD WORKS. • EX: THE “STRING THEORY”= POSES THAT THE UNIVERSE IS MADE UP OF 10 OR EVEN 26 DIMENSIONS.

  13. CELLS

  14. THERE ARE 2 CELL TYPES PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

  15. PROKARYOTE CELL EUKARYOTE CELL

  16. WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?? PROKARYOTIC CELLS: ARE SMALLER HAVE NO MEMBRANE AROUND ORGANELLES (SUCH AS THE NUCLEUS) HAVE FEWER ORGANELLES LACKS A NUCLEOLUS USUSALLY HAS ONE CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME CONTAINING DNA. REPRODUCE BY THE PROCESS OF BINARY FISSION EXAMPLE: BACTERIA

  17. EUKARYOTIC CELLS • ARE BIGGER • HAVE MEMBRANES AROUND THEIR ORGANELLES • CONTAINS A NUCLEUS • HAVE MORE CHROMOSOMES • HAVE MORE ORGANELLES • REPRODUCE BY THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS & MEIOSIS • EXAMPLES: ANIMAL & PLANT CELLS; FUNGI AND PROTISTS

  18. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT & ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS: HAVE CHLOROPLASTS HAVE A CELL WALL LARGE VACUOLE NO CENTRIOLES ANIMAL CELLS: NO CHLOROPLAST NO CELL WALL SMALL VACUOLES HAVE CENTRIOLES

  19. NUCLEUS VACUOLE ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R) CHROMOSOMES CELL MEMBRANE GOLGI BODIES NUCLEAR ENEVLOPE LYSOSOME CYTOPLASM CENTRIOLES SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R.) MITOCHONDRIA ANIMAL CELL

  20. PLANT CELL Cytoplasm Cell Wall Cell Membrane Lysosome Chromosome Vacuole Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear Envelope Chloroplast Golgi Bodies Mitochondria

  21. TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN & OUT OF A CELL PASSIVE TRANSPORT -DIFFUSION -OSMOSIS -FACILITATED DIFFUSION ACTIVE TRANSPORT -PROTEIN PUMP -ENDOCYTOSIS -EXOCYTOSIS

  22. PASSIVE TRANSPORT MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE WITHOUT ANY INPUT OF ENERGY BY THE CELL. MOLECULES MOVE DOWN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT. DIFFERENCE IN THE CONCENTRATION OF MOLECULES ACROSS SPACE

  23. Concentration Gradient Passive Transport

  24. SIMPLEST FORM MOVES MOLECULES FROM AN AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM IS MET. DIFFUSION

  25. Osmosis

  26. OSMOSIS IN ACTION HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC ISOTONIC

  27. ACTIVE TRANSPORT REQUIRES ENERGY FROM THE CELL MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM AN AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION MOVEMENT GOES UP THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.

  28. Concentration Gradient Active Transport

  29. Cell Cycle

  30. CELL CYCLE Cytokinesis Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Mitosis

  31. Meiosis I Meiosis II Did you notice that meiosis II is pretty much the same as mitosis?

  32. DNA Replication

  33. Protein Synthesis

  34. Protein Synthesis

  35. Genetics

  36. MENDEL’S PEA PLANT EXPERIEMENTS

  37. GENETIC TERMS • Gene: a sequence of DNA that encodes for a certain trait • Allele: one of two (or more) alternative forms of a gene • Dominant Allele: an allele that dictates the expression of a trait (capital letter, ex: A) • Recessive Allele: an allele whose trait is masked by the presence of a dominant allele (lower case letter, ex: a)

  38. TERMS Genotype: genetic make-up of an organism (letter combination) Phenotype: physical appearance of an organism (its outward appearance) Homozygous: both alleles in a gene pair code for the same trait (ex: AA or aa) Heterozygous: the two alleles in a gene pair that do not code for the same trait (ex: Aa)

  39. TERMS Sex Chromosome: the chromosome that determines the sex of an organism (the X and Y chromosome) Autosome: any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome Punnett Square: a chart which shows all possible gene combinations in a cross of parents Monohybrid cross: a cross between two individuals for one trait (ex: Aa x Aa) Dihybrid cross: crossing two different characteristics at the same time (AaBb x AaBb)

  40. Punnett Squares T T TT x tt t t T T t t t t T T • A Punnettsquare is a chart which shows all possible gene combinations in a cross of parents. • Horizontally across the top of the chart are the possible gametes of one parent. • Vertically down the side of the chart are the possible gametes of the other parent. • In the boxes of the chart are the possible genotypes of the offspring.

  41. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DOMINANCE COMPLETE DOMINANCE- a heterozygous & a homozygous organism are the same phenotypically. i.e BB=Bb

  42. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE- 2 or more alleles influence the phenotype resulting in a phenotype intermediate of the dominant and the recessive trait.

  43. CODOMINANCE- neither of the 2 alleles of the same gene totally masks the other. The result is a combination of both dominant traits.

  44. Traits being passed on and Mutations

  45. Evolution

  46. Spontaneous Generation • The belief before the 17th century • Living things arose from non-living things • Ex. Throwing waste into the street creates rats and flies • Three scientists tested this hypothesis: • Redi • Spallanzani • Pasteur

  47. Conclusion to all 3 experiments: spontaneous generation disproved • The New hypothesis: biogenesis = all living things come from other living things.

  48. TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS • Structural • Behavioral • Physiological

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