Transmission Fundamentals

1. University of Palestine Transmission Fundamentals Done by Badereldeen El sabee No. 220060098

2. Electromagnetic Signal • Function of time • Can also be expressed as a function of frequency • Signal consists of components of different frequencies

3. Time-Domain Concepts • Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time • No breaks or discontinuities in the signal • Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level • Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time • s(t +T ) = s(t ) -¥< t < +¥ • where T is the period of the sign

4. Time-Domain Concepts • Aperiodicsignal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time • Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the signal over time; typically measured in volts • Frequency (f ) • Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats

5. Time-Domain Concepts • Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the signal • T = 1/f • Phase (φ) - measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal • Wavelength (λ) - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal • Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles

6. Sine Wave Parameters • General sine wave • s(t ) = A sin(2πft + φ) • Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters • (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, φ = 0; thus T = 1s • (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5 • (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½ • (d) Phase shift; φ = π/4 radians (45 degrees) • note: 2π radians = 360° = 1 period

8. Time vs. Distance • When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in space as a function of time • With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in time as a function of distance • At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal varies as a function of distance from the source

9. Frequency-Domain Concepts • Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental frequency • Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains • Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal • Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band of frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is contained in

10. Frequency-Domain Concepts • Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases • The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamental frequency

11. Data Rate and Bandwidth • Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies. • This limits the data rate that can be carried

12. Data Rate Limits • A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors: • 1. The bandwidth available • 2. The level of the signals we use • 3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

13. Topics discussed in this section: • Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate • Noise Channel: Shannon Capacité • Using Both Limits Note Increasing the levels of a signal increases the probability of an error occurring, in other words it reduces the reliability of the system. Why??

14. Capacity of a System • The bit rate of a system increases with an increase in the number of signal levels we use to denote a symbol. • A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits. • The number of signal levels = 2n. • As the number of levels goes up, the spacing between level decreases -> increasing the probability of an error occurring in the presence of transmission impairments.

15. Nyquist Theorem • Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a transmission system by calculating the bit rate directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system (assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first harmonic). • Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel: C = 2 B log22n C= capacity in bps B = bandwidth in Hz

16. Example 3.33 • Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission? • Solution • They match when we have only two levels. We said, in baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied when we have two or more levels of signals.

17. Example 3.34 • Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

18. Example 3.35 • Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

19. Example 3.36 • We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need? • Solution • We can use the Nyquist formula as shown: Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

20. Shannon’s Theorem • Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the presence of noise. C = B log2(1 + SNR)

21. Example 3.37 • Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

22. Example 3.38 • We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

23. Example 3.39 • The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

24. Example 3.40 • For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be simplified to For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of the previous example as

25. Example 3.41 • We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level? • Solution First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

26. Example 3.41 (continued) • The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.

27. Note • The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

28. Relationship between Data Rateand Bandwidth • The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-carrying capacity • Conclusions • Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth • BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that can be transmitted • AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost • HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions

29. Data Communication Terms • Data - entities that convey meaning, or information • Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations of data • Transmission - communication of data by the propagation and processing of signals

30. Examples of Analog and DigitalData • Analog • Video • Audio • Digital • Text • Integers

31. Analog Signals • A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on frequency • Examples of media: • Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable) • Fiber optic cable • Atmosphere or space propagation • Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data.

32. Digital Signals • A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a copper wire medium • Generally cheaper than analog signaling • Less susceptible to noise interference • Suffer more from attenuation • Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data

35. Reasons for Choosing Data andSignal Combinations • Digital data, digital signal • Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digitalto- analog equipment • Analog data, digital signal • Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment • Digital data, analog signal • Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals • Examples include optical fiber and satellite • Analog data, analog signal • Analog data easily converted to analog signal

36. Analog Transmission • Transmit analog signals without regard to content • Attenuation limits length of transmission link • Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer distances but cause distortion • Analog data can tolerate distortion • Introduces errors in digital data

37. Digital Transmission • Concerned with the content of the signal • Attenuation endangers integrity of data • Digital Signal • Repeaters achieve greater distance • Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit • Analog signal carrying digital data • Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog signal • Generates new, clean analog signal

38. About Channel Capacity • Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be achieved • For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data rate? • Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions

39. Concepts Related to ChannelCapacity • Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps) • Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the transmitter and the • atureof the transmission medium (Hertz) • Noise - average level of noise over the communications path • Error rate - rate at which errors occur • Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1

40. Nyquist Bandwidth • For binary signals (two voltage levels) • C = 2B • With multilevel signaling • C = 2B log2 M • M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels

41. Signal-to-Noise Ratio

42. Shannon Capacity Formula

43. Example of Nyquist and ShannonFormulations

44. Example of Nyquist and ShannonFormulations

45. Classifications of TransmissionMedia • Transmission Medium • Physical path between transmitter and receiver • Guided Media • Waves are guided along a solid medium • E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber • Unguided Media • Provides means of transmission but does not guide electromagnetic signals • Usually referred to as wireless transmission • E.g., atmosphere, outer space

46. Unguided Media • Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna • Configurations for wireless transmission • Directional • Omnidirectional

47. General Frequency Ranges • Microwave frequency range • 1 GHz to 40 GHz • Directional beams possible • Suitable for point-to-point transmission • Used for satellite communications • Radio frequency range • 30 MHz to 1 GHz • Suitable for omnidirectional applications • Infrared frequency range • Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz • Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined areas

48. Terrestrial Microwave • Description of common microwave antenna • Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter • Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam • Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna • Located at substantial heights above ground level • Applications • Long haul telecommunications service • Short point-to-point links between buildings

49. Satellite Microwave • Description of communication satellite • Microwave relay station • Used to link two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers • Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink) • Applications • Television distribution • Long-distance telephone transmission • Private business networks

50. Broadcast Radio • Description of broadcast radio antennas • Omnidirectional • Antennas not required to be dish-shaped • Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment • Applications • Broadcast radio • VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz • Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television