Education & Development

Education & Development All: Explain how education benefits development, and it’s current state in the developing world. Most: Analyse the approaches of each development theory. Some: Evaluate the problems of having a growing educated workforce. Good education has been proven to improve standards of living, raise participation in civic activities and make for a happier, harder-working populace. In the last 50 years, developing countries have spent more of their budgets on improving the education of their people – with mixed results.

The importance of Education in Development • Economic development requires expert, technical knowledge on a local level. Not all expertise can be brought from other countries. International organisations and MEDCs are generally keen to see LEDCs train their own people in the specialist skills required for the long-term development of a country. • Education also gives people the values and attitudes required in the process of development. Literate, numerate people can fully understand what action is required for development and participate in deciding what action to take in their communities and their country. • Education can act as a unifying force. It can give people a common set of values and ideas about their country, which helps to overcome class, ethnic and religious differences in a country. • Many people in the developing world are keen to participate in education because they want to obtain achieved status – a qualification, improved employment opportunities, etc. Education acts as an empowering tool for groups in society that have traditionally been excluded from social mobility, e.g. women and the poor.

Benefits of Education in developing countries

Barriers / Limitations of Education in developing countries • Many countries cannot afford universal primary education let alone universal secondary education • Teachers are not paid well and so it is not attractive, often teachers have other jobs to pay bills, and teachers themselves are not well trained • Schools are under resourced with no funding or textbooks/equipment • Schools aren’t houses properly, with too small rooms which are inadequate • School charge money, parents cannot afford it and keep kids out of school • Even when there are no fees parents still have to afford resources • The education system is still influenced by colonialism with English lit taught rather than their own countries literature • Many schools have half school days so that more children can attend, one session in the morning for some children and one in the afternoon to fit the mass of children in. Teachers are overworked and children don’t get full days • War disrupts education • Pupils lack of health care may be off a lot due to illness (Malaria) • Pupils that do well at primary education may not have secondary places to go to and may have to walk long distances • To meet the Millennium Development Goals countries get more students enrolled but they are not the best quality • Persistence of child labour - Parents in rural areas often pull children out of education to work. This is one of the main reasons why there are high drop-out rates even in primary education – in some African countries –such as Mali and Ethiopia – despite high enrolment rates of 80-90%, only around 50% of children finish primary education. • Teachers are less well qualified and in primary schools the teacher/pupil ratio is excessive. • Education is often blamed for not being relevant to the needs of the local people e.g. farming and agriculture – where the majority will return to after a brief period in school. • It is also blamed for spending too much on secondary education as only a small minority attend. Promises of better urban lifestyles and white-collar jobs are often unrealistic. • patriarchal cultural values – means girls suffer most from lack of education

Overview

Modernisation Theory Education is necessary for development. In Rostow’s model of development (5 stages of modernisation theory), an educated workforce is necessary for industrial take-off. • Western Meritocratic systems for two reasons • Vocational role/ Human Capital ( Talcott, Parsons) ensures workers are skilled and sorts them by ability into appropriate jobs. • Helpful for development because it helps overcome cultural barriers, folklore  science. ( Hoselitz)Business is meritocratic- individualism, competition, scientific not traditional- collective. Education for economic growth! Criticisms: Ethnocentric? Destroys local traditions and cultural identity.

Schultz and Becker • “Human capital” first used by Schultz in the 60s. • concept of human capital recognizes that not all labour is equal and that the quality of employees can be improved by investing in them; the education, experience and abilities of employees have economic value for employers and for the economy as a whole • Human capital theory suggests that education or training raises the productivity of workers by imparting useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future income by increasing their lifetime earnings (Becker, 1964). • Human capital corresponds to any stock of knowledge or characteristics the worker has (either innate or acquired) that contributes to his or her “productivity” • Invest in people and not technology • Education increases a persons value

Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional Society • Study of Balgat Turkey played a critical role in shaping American ideas about the use of mass media and US cultural products to promote economic and social development in post-colonial nations. • Political elites send their children to Western schools who then return to their countries of origin to spread western values. • In his work details the “Grocer and the Chief” • "Moderns" as cosmopolitan, urban, literate, highly specialized in their vocation, more financially stable, capable of understanding various world situations, interdependent, and more secular than devout. • "Traditionals" are seen as rural, non-literate, living at a subsistence level, highly respectful of authority, possessing a local world view, and usually devout.

Case Studies International and or Private western style Schools (fee paying, some bursaries) Advantages and disadvantages related to this type of institution in Africa • Helps the brightest in the country who would grow up to be the leaders of the country and lead them to be more western which some theorists would argue are the best. • Could give children with high levels of education which they may not have been able to get had this type of institution not been there • This has shown to reduce the budget of normal schools in the rest of the country, and so the rest of the children are not getting a decent education, and so not getting great skills and thus the skills of the majority are lacking, thus preventing development • The children who were educated in this school would most likely go to other western countries instead of staying in their poor countries with less money – brain drain • Only educating the wealthy limits the skilled people who can work • Like Cohen referred to Urban cities as islands with a sea of poverty, this is the same thing The problem of imposing a Western system of education onto indigenous cultures • It ignores and disregards the indigenous traditions and cultures which the people have lived under all of their lives. There could become a conflict between the children going to western schools and their parents with the traditional values, effectively pulling families apart.

Dependency and Education Colonialism • Colonial powers undermine indigenous powers • Intellectual inferiority of knowledge and truth • Dependency created Western ideology spread • Hidden curriculum • Not meritocratic system

Dependency Theory Marxist dependency theorists see education as cultural imperialism Dependency theorist really frown on the idea that education trains people for development. They strongly disapprove of education that give people the values and attitudes that are needed for “imperial capitalist” (Western) development – they call this cultural imperialism. Dependency theory see education as a potential tool for keeping people culturally and economically dependent on the developed world – it trains them to get the kind of hobs that benefit TNCs and the developed world. Neo-Colonial processes have ensured education systems remain stunted e.g. paying of debt has prevented developing countries investing in education whereas structural adjustment plans have forced governments to cut back on public services. • Education about people not economy! • Vital for basic numeracy and literacy • Prevents exploitation • Neo-colonial processes (debt crisis, S.A.Ps stunt education in LEDCs) • Meritocratic education not always appropriate • Improve but don’t replace • Too much spent on secondary for the elite and not primary for the masses Politically, the origins of the education the developing nations were to foster an indigenous elite (native) first as extras to the colonial power and more recently – since independence- as a ruling class still subordinate to neo-colonial metropolitan power and influence. Cultural aspects reveal a sad picture of an isolated and rootless elite infected by individualism, over-identifying with the West and so becoming cut off from their own people. In some cases, native languages are passed over in preference for English and French.

Paulo Friere - Solutions • Banking education describe and critique the traditional education system. • Refers to the metaphor of students as containers into which educators must put knowledge. • reinforces a lack of critical thinking and knowledge ownership in students, which in turn reinforces oppression • Instead of communicating, the teacher issues communiques and makes deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat • Advocates the removal of the banking and institutional knowledge to be removed • Move towards free thought and equality

Neo-Liberalism • Neo-liberals believe that private enterprise, or companies should take the lead in development. • governments promote a business friendly environment that encourages companies to invest and produce, then this will lead to exports which will encourage free trade. • ‘free’ trade is a central neoliberal strategy for development • The policies proposed are those that were first tried in Chile in the 1970s, then in Britain in the 1980s under Thatcher.

Neo-Liberal Theory Education should be privatised • Education is not at the centre of development! • Education is not the state’s responsibility! • Public sector should be privatised… education should be private. • ‘Trickle down’ economics will compensate for privatisation of education in LEDCs. (i.e through trickle down economics, everyone will eventually get rich and be able to afford education.) • Criticisms?? • Education is a human right- shouldn’t have to pay for it • In the west education is state-funded • Trickle down economics ? How long will it take? Does it work? • People won’t be able to afford it! Why is state run education bad? higher taxes less investment in business less attractive to TNCS Education, Education, Education!

Counter-Industrial / Post-development theory • Education should serve the needs of the people rather than the economy. People-centred approaches highlight that without basic literacy and numeracy, individuals are left at risk of being exploited. They also disagree with the view that education in developing countries should follow the Western model as these may not be appropriate and will destroy indigenous cultures and knowledge systems. People-centred approaches seek to build upon existing education systems rather than replacing them.

Solutions: Universal Education? • External aid and increased investment in the developing world have led many countries to introduce universal education policies – but provision is patchy. • Some countries have universal education for primary school age (up to about 11 years old), some have universal education up to 14 or 16 years old, and some still haven’t introduced universal education. • Even in countries that have universal education as a policy, not every child actually goes to school. This is because of other family commitments and needs – e.g. children may be required to work on the family farm. Need to compare with attendance rates within countries. • In many countries, parents still have to pay school fees to get their child into school. Also, school supplies aren’t provided by the state like they are in the UK. Families have to buy books and other resources. • MDG2 Result: MDG 2: Primary school enrolment figures have shown an impressive rise, but the goal of achieving universal primary education has just been missed, with the net enrolment rate increasing from 83% in 2000 to 91% this year. • Future: SDG4 = Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (8 sub policies with more detailed and specific improvements outlined in education, e.g. by 2030 all countries have universal primary & secondary education, as well as more scholarships for students in developing countries.

Solutions: Universal Education? Arguments for universal education as a priority • Universal education in the North was associated with economic growth, rising living standards and improvements in health • Education ensures there are people with skills and qualifications needed for the countries development • Education is a human right, it gives people control over their own lives and makes it more difficult to be exploited • Universal education for women is good to improve heal an nutrition for families, chances of employment and limiting the number of children they have Arguments against universal education as a priority • Where a country has limited resources it makes more sense to educate the minority for leadership and management positions if the majority do not need an education for the work they do • Countries may want to achieve economic growth and see education as not a priority • Education can make people frustrated that there are not opportunities in the country to go into afterwards, it could make someone rebellious. For example, (Richards 1996) the leaders of the Sierra Leone civil war were well educated men who came into contact with radical ideas in their education and saw no future in the way Sierra Leone was.

EXAM PRACTICE

ESSAY TARGETS T1 – Link in Theory that you have not covered(Modernisation, Dependency, Neoliberal, Counter-Industrial/Post-development) T2 - Include any of the concepts you have not included from the mark scheme (Slide 26 of PowerPoint ). T3 – Discuss barriers to education in the developing world, and link to the question. T4 – More discussion and links needed to social aspects of development (colonialism, indigenous cultures, oppression, meritocracy) T5 - More discussion and links needed to economic aspects of development (Human Capital Theory, entrepreneurialism) T6 - More discussion and links needed to environmental aspects of development (education on environmental & health issues) T7 – Add regular links to you writing that show you are answering the question (e.g. this shows that Western Models are / are not appropriate for development). T8 – Refer to at least 3 Sociologists in your answer (check the Textbook, Mark Scheme & your notes and make sure you use them in your answer). T9 – In your conclusion, give an overall judgement, including the most positive and negative arguments to support / discredit the statement in the question. T10 – Link in MDGs / SDGs

Education & Development