Individual Differences

Individual Differences Exploring Diverse Cultures in Today’s Organization Geert & Gert Jan Hofstede, Paul Pedersen Based upon Exploring Culture & Cultures & Organizations: Software of the Mind

Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster." Prof. Geert Hofstede, Emeritus Professor, Maastricht University Geert Hofstede Undertook research to determine how people in different cultures react to various situations. With his son Gert Jan Hofstede, he continues his research and has published various books on the topic

Three Levels of Mental Programming CULTURE Inherited and learned Specific to Individual PERSONALITY Specific to group Or Category Learned Universal Inherited HUMAN NATURE

Hofstede’s Synthetic Cultures • Identity (How you view yourself/relationship to others) • Individualism versus Collectivism • Hierarchy (How you view status levels in society) • Low versus High Power Distance • Relationship with superiors • Gender (How you view roles in society) • Masculinity versus Femininity • Truth (How comfortable you are with ambiguous situations) • Uncertainty Avoidance versus Uncertainty Tolerance • Time (How you make decisions) • Long Term versus short term

Individualism vs Collectivism • Individualism • National culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of a group • Collectivism • National culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them

Individualism vs Collectivism • Key Elements of Individualism • Honest people speak their minds • Low-context communication (explicit concepts) is preferred • Task takes precedence over relationships • Laws and right are the same for all • Trespassing leads to guilt and loss of self-respect • Everyone is supposed to have a personal opinion on any topic • The relationship between employer and employee or between parent and child is a contract based upon mutual advantage

Extreme Individualism They are verbal and self-centered, using I and me a lot They make eye contact freely. When in groups, they are likely to stand out visually They are defensive and tend to be loners; they run from one appointment to the next They use other people and measure the importance of others in terms of how useful they are They are supposed to continually test their own ability. This can be stressful. They tend to take on stress physically • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Individualism vs Collectivism • Key Elements of Collectivism • Members of one’s in-group (organization, extended family, etc.) are very close, whereas, out-group people are very distant • Harmony should always be maintained and direct confrontation avoided • Relationships are more important than the task at hand. Much time is spend o greeting and farewell rituals • Laws, rights, and opinions differ by group • Trespassing leads to shame and loss of face for the entire in-group • The relationship between employer and employee is perceived in moral terms, like a family link • Spoken communication uses imprecise style. Discreet nonverbal cues, such as tone and pauses, are crucial. The speaker adapts to the listener.

Extreme Collectivism They can be very silent, especially when alone among out-group people. They use we instead of I. Silences may occur in conversations without creating tension. They are physically very close with in-groups, but reserved with out-groups They are never on their own; they are not forthright They will go to great lengths for their friends and expect the same in return They internalize stress. They will suffer if they cannot avoid deviant behavior or if they are forced to be alone. If provoked, they can be collectively violent to out-groups • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Power Distance • A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally

High vs. Low Power Distance • Key Elements of High Power Distance • Might makes right; power is good • Power, status, and privilege go together • Less powerful people are dependent on those who are more powerful • Centralization is popular • Subordinates and children expect direction. They do not speak without being asked. • The ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat or “good father” • Style of speech is formal and acknowledges hierarchical positions

Extremely High Power Distance They are very verbal but usually soft-spoken and polite They are usually restrained and formal They are hierarchical and seek to please in a formal way They tend to shift blame downward for any problems They internalize stress and express it indirectly • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

High vs. Low Power Distance • Key elements of Low Power Distance • Inequalities among people should be minimized. Privileges and status symbols are frowned upon • There should be, and is, interdependence between less and more powerful people • Hierarchy in organizations means an inequality of rules only, established for convenience • Decentralization is popular • Subordinates and children expect to be consulted • In a conversation anyone can take the lead at any time • Powerful peoploe try to appear less powerful than they are

Extremely Low Power Distance They talk freely in any social context They are usually informal and unceremonious They are unruly, impolite, and jealous They will talk back to anybody They always talk or fight conflicts out • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Masculinity & Femininity • Masculinity • A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. • Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism • Femininity • A national culture attribute that has little differentiation between male and female roles, where women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of society

Masculinity vs. Femininity • Key Elements of Extreme Masculinity (Mascus) • Material success and progress are dominant values • Bigger and faster are better • Men are supposed to be assertive, ambitious, and tough. Women are supposed to be subservient and tender. Attractive women can use their beauty as a weapon in social competition • Mascus like to admire exceptional people or achievements • Failing (at school, at work, in sports, or wherever) is a disaster • Conflicts are resolved by arguing or fighting them out • The best student, worker, or manager sets the norm

Extreme Masculinity They are loud and verbal, with a tendency to criticize and argue with others They like physical contact, direct eye contact, and animated gestures They are macho, and hero-and status oriented, and like winners They are hard to please, tend to be overachievers, are defensive and blame others for their mistakes They generate stress through fast paced lifestyles • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Masculinity vs. Femininity • Key Elements of Extreme Femininity (Femis) • Dominant values in society are caring for the weak and preservation (for example, of the environment) • Small and slow are beautiful • Everybody is supposed to be modest, soft-spoken, and empathetic – men and women alike • Femis play down exceptional achievements and people • Conflicts are resolved through compromise and negotiation • Equality, solidarity, and quality of work life are emphasized • Society is permissive

Extreme Femininity They do not raise their voices. They like small talk and agreement They don’t take much room and are warm and friendly in conversation You cannot tell the men from the women. Losers are pampered and they complain about small things They tend to pity others and themselves and to avoid excessive achievements They have a hard time standing up for their rights or ending relationships • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Uncertainty Avoidance • A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertainty and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them

Truth Dimension:Uncertainty Avoidance • Key Elements of Extreme Uncertainty Avoidance • What is different is dangerous • Familiar risks are accepted, but ambiguous situations and unfamiliar risks are feared • Rules are important, even if the rules will never work • Rigid taboos exist about what is dirty, wrong, or indecent • Time is money • There is only one truth and we have it • Experts and specialization are valued

Extreme Uncertainty Avoidance They are very verbal and well organized, somewhat loud, and emotional They are animated in using hands but are uncomfortable with physical contact They have rigid beliefs and are obsessed with rules. They can be xenophobic. They argue all the time They quickly and sometimes prematurely judge a situation to establish right or wrong They are uptight. They externalize stress and usually make others feel stressed • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Truth Dimension:Uncertainty Tolerance • Key Elements of Uncertainty Tolerance • What is different causes curiosity • Ambiguous situations and unfamiliar risks cause no discomfort • Rules should be limited to those that are absolutely necessary • Aggression and emotions should be hidden • Being lazy feels good, working hard is valued only when needed • Deviant and innovative ideas and behavior are tolerated • Generalists are valued, as is common sense

Extreme Uncertainty Tolerance They are not loud, They can be imprecise. They ask open-ended questions. They are unhurried, informal, and have no taboos They have no principles and talk nonsense They judge in pragmatic, not moral terms They are relaxed and take each day as it comes • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Time Orientation • Long Term Orientation • A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence • Short Term orientation • A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligations

Long Term Time Orientation • Key elements of Long Term Time Orientation • Working hard is good • Thrift and saving are good • Never give up, even if results are disappointing • People may devote their lives to lofty, remote ideals • Traditions can be adapted to a modern context • Achieving one’s purpose may be worth losing face • Past and future generations are important

Extreme Long Term Time Orientation They are direct and focused, asking questions about implications of actions They are restrained and unceremonious They are dull and always working They tend to blame themselves and are careful planners They are uptight and worried. However, they can cope with heavy workloads under difficult circumstances • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotypes • Evaluation • Stress

Short Term Time Orientation • Key Elements of Short Term Time Orientators • Never lose face • There is a social pressure to “keep up with the Joneses” even if it means overspending • Quick results are expected • Traditions should be respected • Social demands (reciprocating gifts) are met regardless of cost • Personal stability is much valued • Saving is not popular, so there is little money for investment

Extreme Short Term Orientation They talk a lot and especially about the past They are ceremonious, attentive, and stylish and are warm and formal They are big spenders and irresponsible They are fatalistic and live from day to day They are desperate to save face and are distressed at loss of face • Language • Nonverbal • Stereotype • Evaluation • Stress

Verbal Communication Mutual Reward Theory Age Differences Value Conflicts Sender Receiver Ethnic Implications Irritation Threshold Sexual Overtones Your Attitude Is Showing Elwood Chapman Sharon Lund O’Neal

Train or car? • You are a commuter. The car trip to work takes approximately one hour, the train ride, approximately an hour and a half. Do you prefer to go by car or by train? • By car, because if I travel by train, people will think I can’t afford a car. • By car, because it is faster. • By car, because it is private. • By car, because people in my position do not travel by public transport. • By train, because it is safer. • By train, because it allows me to get some work done while traveling. • By Train, because I might meet interesting people • By train, because it is better for the environment. • Either was is fine, whichever is cheaper in the long run

The Accident • You are chairing a very important business meeting, for which some attendees have made a transoceanic flight. Millions of dollars are involved. During the meeting one of your local colleagues, a financial expert, receives a message: his eight-year-old child has been hit by a car and is hospitalized with very severe injuries. How do you react? • You cancel the meeting and arrange for a sequel on the following day. • You let your colleague leave the meeting. • You leave the room for a moment with your colleague and tell him that although you would like him to stay; he can leave if he wants to. • You go on with the meeting, asking your colleague to stay.

A Virtual Contact On the Web you have found the side of somebody you might want to start a business relationship with. How would you establish the first contact? • Write a formal, polite paper letter on your company’s letterhead. • Send an e-mail starting “Dear Mr. So-and-so” and ending “King regards, X”. • Send an e-mail starting “My name is X and I have a proposal that might interest you” and ending with your first name. • Have your secretary arrange a phone call. • Call the person on the phone yourself.

The Intruder You are standing at a reception, engaged in conversation with another person you vaguely know. Suddenly a third person arrives and starts to talk to your conversation partner without seeming to notice you. What do you think? • This must be a close friend of your conversation partner. • This must be an absolute brute to push you aside in this manner. • Your conversation partner should ask the intruder to wait a moment. • This must be a VIP (Very Important Person) • This must be somebody with a very urgent matter. • Your conversation partner should introduce you to the newcomer. • Nothing

The Returning Athlete You are the mayor of a small town. An athlete from your town took part in the Olympic Games. The athlete is due to return tomorrow, having obtained fourth place in an event. What sort of official welcome will you prepare for her? • None, because a fourth place is not worth anything. If only it had been a gold medal… • None, because there is no protocol for officially receiving returning sports players or participants. • A grand one, because even if she did not win, she did participate in the Olympic Games and that is a great achievement. • A grand one, because she is one of us and she has honored our town. • You will ask the city council for advice.

Five Basic Problems of Society • Stau’s daughter • Identity - she described a very individualistic culture • Dua’s son • Hierarchy – he described a culture in which people are supposed to be equal (very small power distance) • Tiga’s daughter • Gender – she described a culture in which caring for others and being modest were important (feminine) • Ampat’s son • Truth – he described a culture where people believed strongly in order and self-discipline, where there were clear rules and Truth • Lima’s daughter • Virtue – she described a culture in which hard work and persistence were important virtues, and children were to sacrifice the pleasures today for the benefit of their future

Individual Differences