Discursive Shuffle of a Middle School Teacher: Critical Application

1. Ruth Harman 1 Discursive Shuffle of a Middle School Teacher: Critical Application? This paper explores whether an urban school teacher’s participation in an inquiry based Master’s degree program contributes to any shifts in her understanding of her non-dominant students and her own teaching. I use the term ‘shuffle’ to denote the concept of constant movement, the heteroglossia of our language as we inhabit multiple discourse communities and shift from one to the other. This paper explores whether an urban school teacher’s participation in an inquiry based Master’s degree program contributes to any shifts in her understanding of her non-dominant students and her own teaching. I use the term ‘shuffle’ to denote the concept of constant movement, the heteroglossia of our language as we inhabit multiple discourse communities and shift from one to the other.

2. Ruth Harman 2 Research Context: 1.Critical View of social hierarchies City schools, which have a predominantly Latino and African American student population (US Census, 2005), hire less experienced and lower paid teachers and administrators than suburban school districts (Ingersoll, 2003). In 2003, 44% of those designated as “Hispanic” and 82% of “Limited English Proficient” students failed the 8th grade ELA MCAs at “Willow” Middle School. In contrast, only 7% of the overall percentage of students in the state failed the test (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2004). Within the current US climate of high stake testing, accountability policies such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), and an erosion of support for bilingual education (e.g. Massachusetts, 2002), overwhelmed “mainstream” urban school teachers are expected to deliver mandated curricula to an increasing number of linguistically and culturally diverse students (US Census, 2005). 2/3 of city children are African American and Latino. Limited financial resources compound problems for non dominant students in urban districts (Darling-Hammond, 2004). In 2003, for example, the year this research study began, 44% of those designated as “Hispanic” and 82% of “Limited English Proficient” students failed the 8th grade Massachusetts English Language Arts state test at Willow Middle School. In contrast, only 7% of the overall percentage of students in the state failed the test (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2004). Within the current US climate of high stake testing, accountability policies such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), and an erosion of support for bilingual education (e.g. Massachusetts, 2002), overwhelmed “mainstream” urban school teachers are expected to deliver mandated curricula to an increasing number of linguistically and culturally diverse students (US Census, 2005). 2/3 of city children are African American and Latino. Limited financial resources compound problems for non dominant students in urban districts (Darling-Hammond, 2004). In 2003, for example, the year this research study began, 44% of those designated as “Hispanic” and 82% of “Limited English Proficient” students failed the 8th grade Massachusetts English Language Arts state test at Willow Middle School. In contrast, only 7% of the overall percentage of students in the state failed the test (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2004).

3. Ruth Harman 3 School-University Partnerships School reform initiative in 1980s and 1990s (e.g. Holmes Group, 1990) Purpose: Systemic and critical inquiry into inequity among schools and lack of teacher autonomy (e.g. Carnegie Report, 1994) Problems: Perpetuation of status quo (Ladson Billings, 1999; Nieto, 2000) ACCELA (ACCESS to Critical English and Content Language Acquisition) for four cohorts in ‘underperforming districts.’ To address questions and practices of unequal distribution among schools, many of the school-university partnerships were set up in lower socio economic school districts (Holmes Group, 1990). However, because dominant belief systems about social and cultural issues often prevail in schools and teacher education programs (Ladson-Billings, 2001; Nieto, 2000), these alliances have often perpetuated the status quo instead of exploring ways to redress issues such as the large gap in achievement between high poverty and low poverty schools (Murell & Borunda, 1998; Willett & Rosenberger, 2004). The focus has rarely been, for example, on the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students within specific socio cultural contexts (Valli, Cooper, & Frankes, 1997). The ACCELA Master’s program in Education and Licensure in ESL and Readingintroduce teachers to inquiry-based research, second language and multicultural theories on literacy and language development, and socio cultural and critical perspectives on classroom interaction (e.g., Dyson, 1993; Gutiérrez et al, 1997; Willett, 1995; Nieto, 2000; Norton, 1997; Olsen, 1997; Ibrahim, 1999; Solsken et al, 2000). During the teachers’ course work, researchers from the ACCELA university community work collaboratively with the teachers as their ‘project assistants.’To address questions and practices of unequal distribution among schools, many of the school-university partnerships were set up in lower socio economic school districts (Holmes Group, 1990). However, because dominant belief systems about social and cultural issues often prevail in schools and teacher education programs (Ladson-Billings, 2001; Nieto, 2000), these alliances have often perpetuated the status quo instead of exploring ways to redress issues such as the large gap in achievement between high poverty and low poverty schools (Murell & Borunda, 1998; Willett & Rosenberger, 2004). The focus has rarely been, for example, on the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students within specific socio cultural contexts (Valli, Cooper, & Frankes, 1997). The ACCELA Master’s program in Education and Licensure in ESL and Readingintroduce teachers to inquiry-based research, second language and multicultural theories on literacy and language development, and socio cultural and critical perspectives on classroom interaction (e.g., Dyson, 1993; Gutiérrez et al, 1997; Willett, 1995; Nieto, 2000; Norton, 1997; Olsen, 1997; Ibrahim, 1999; Solsken et al, 2000). During the teachers’ course work, researchers from the ACCELA university community work collaboratively with the teachers as their ‘project assistants.’

4. Ruth Harman 4 Research questions When enrolled in the ACCELA Master’s program: 1. What discourses of teaching and learning are embodied and resisted in Trudy’s discursive practices? (informed by Bourdieu, Lemke, Fairclough – view of dynamic connection between discourse and Discourses) 2. How does the ELA teacher’s understanding of her culturally and linguistically diverse students and her teaching practices change over the course of the year? During the teachers’ course work, researchers from the ACCELA university community work collaboratively with the teachers as their ‘project assistants.’ as a collaborative partner in Trudy’s research projects, as a researcher from the university community, and sometimes as a teacher helper in the classroom, multiple perspectives informed my ethnographic case study. During the teachers’ course work, researchers from the ACCELA university community work collaboratively with the teachers as their ‘project assistants.’ as a collaborative partner in Trudy’s research projects, as a researcher from the university community, and sometimes as a teacher helper in the classroom, multiple perspectives informed my ethnographic case study.

5. Ruth Harman 5 Conceptual framework Discourses refer to ways of knowing, acting, and believing that are co-constructed by participants of a specific discourse community (Gee, 1999; Lemke, 1995) By examining how and what threads of discourses are interwoven or silenced in a text, one can probe its ideological nature (Bakhtin, 1981; Fairclough, 1992; Kamberelis & Scott, 1992). Critical perspective as I said before: For example, 38.8% of Latino male students dropped out of high school in 2002 compared to 13.7% of White male students (US Census, 2005). In other words, school cultural practices are situated within specific socio cultural contexts and ideological discourses (Fairclough, 1992; Gebhard, 2002, 2004; Gee, Hull & Lankshear, 1996). Discourse: To communicate among their peers, teachers in a school, for example, use a shared terminology to describe their students or their own work; grade papers with a common set of rubrics; resist or comply with administration within a certain set of permutations. For Bakhtin (1981) and Volshinov (1994), all texts and utterances are multi voiced or ‘dialogic’ in that they intertextually address past, current, and future discourses. When talking with their colleagues, teachers may interweave into their school discourse a completely different set of cultural references from another discourse they inhabit or anticipate. The term ‘intertext’ refers to the strands of discourses that are woven through direct quotation, negation or irony (Fairclough, 1992) into a unified message unit for a specific communicative purpose (Bakhtin, 1981; Kamberelis, 1992) As a critical analyst, I explore not only the discourses that are present in texts but also those that are silenced. For example, through a pattern of modality (Eggins, 2004; Halliday, 2004) a speaker or writer can produce an authoritative and monologic voice through an occlusion of conflicting discourses or s/he can open to the inherent polyphony of discourses within a text (Bakhtin, 1981; Fairclough, 1992). Critical perspective as I said before: For example, 38.8% of Latino male students dropped out of high school in 2002 compared to 13.7% of White male students (US Census, 2005). In other words, school cultural practices are situated within specific socio cultural contexts and ideological discourses (Fairclough, 1992; Gebhard, 2002, 2004; Gee, Hull & Lankshear, 1996). Discourse: To communicate among their peers, teachers in a school, for example, use a shared terminology to describe their students or their own work; grade papers with a common set of rubrics; resist or comply with administration within a certain set of permutations. For Bakhtin (1981) and Volshinov (1994), all texts and utterances are multi voiced or ‘dialogic’ in that they intertextually address past, current, and future discourses. When talking with their colleagues, teachers may interweave into their school discourse a completely different set of cultural references from another discourse they inhabit or anticipate. The term ‘intertext’ refers to the strands of discourses that are woven through direct quotation, negation or irony (Fairclough, 1992) into a unified message unit for a specific communicative purpose (Bakhtin, 1981; Kamberelis, 1992) As a critical analyst, I explore not only the discourses that are present in texts but also those that are silenced. For example, through a pattern of modality (Eggins, 2004; Halliday, 2004) a speaker or writer can produce an authoritative and monologic voice through an occlusion of conflicting discourses or s/he can open to the inherent polyphony of discourses within a text (Bakhtin, 1981; Fairclough, 1992).

6. Ruth Harman 6 School context Urban ‘low performing’ middle school in Western Massachusetts in an era of high stakes testing and accountability. 8th grade ELA Classroom: 11 boys, 4 girls - 4 African Americans, 1 African, 7 Puerto Rican, 2 Colombian and 1 Anglo Trudy: French Canadian/ Italian American; Drama/ ELA education; 2 yrs teaching experience Ruth: Irish native; Drama/ Lit/ Language/ 2nd year doctoral student The Latino student enrollment in the city’s public schools is more than four times higher than it is statewide (Latino, 2004). The Willow school demographics in 2003-4 were 56.5% Latino, 22.9% African American, 18.7% White and a very small percentage of Asian and American Indian. Low income students made up 77.1% of the student population, compared with 27.2% in the state (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2004). The Latino student enrollment in the city’s public schools is more than four times higher than it is statewide (Latino, 2004). The Willow school demographics in 2003-4 were 56.5% Latino, 22.9% African American, 18.7% White and a very small percentage of Asian and American Indian. Low income students made up 77.1% of the student population, compared with 27.2% in the state (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2004).

7. Ruth Harman 7 Methodology: Critical discourse analysis and systemic functional linguistics(Eggins, 2003; Fairclough, 1992; 2003)with critical ethnographic perspective Preliminary thematic coding of Trudy’s discursive practices (student identity/ teacher positioning) Micro line by line SFL analysis with focused coding (e.g. intertext, modality) of Trudy’s research journal and selected transcripts Triangulation: multiple data sets and feedback from Trudy and ACCELA faculty My data collection consisted of audio and video recordings of classroom interactions and interviews, my own field notes, scanned instructional materials, Trudy’s ACCELA Master’s course assignments, her research journal, and school and state policy documents Because I was interested in exploring questions of multiple and contradictory Discourses of teaching (Bakhtin, 1981; Gee, 1996) and their intertextual connections (Lemke, 1995; Fairclough, 1992) in Trudy’s discursive practices, I first did a close analysis of the entire set of data by assigning codes to emerging themes and patterns that related to questions of student identity and teacher positioning. I found that Trudy’s research journal entries were focal ‘leverage’ texts to analyze because they referred continually to classroom events, ACCELA course work and her interactions with me. Trudy kept the research journal not as an ACCELA course assignment but as a way for her to articulate her research questions and reflections on her teaching during the year. She generously offered to share them with me on a regular basis. My second stage: I also followed Trudy’s intertextual references to their source, when possible. For example, in a November journal entry Trudy referred to a reading I had given her about struggling readers. As part of my analysis of the November entry I analyzed the article she mentioned and also my field notes about our discussion of the reading. I also referred to the English Language Arts curriculum frameworks Trudy was mandated to follow that year and the textbooks she used in her class. I also selected pivotal literacy events/ practices (Barton & Hamilton, 1998) at the beginning, middle and end of the year and did a micro analysis of the classroom transcripts and videos by using the same focused coding with small variations (see Appendix 1 & 2 for more details). At times, my ethnographic approach to the study provided me with ‘insider’ knowledge of school and ACCELA practices that helped me to question certain silences in Trudy’s texts. My data collection consisted of audio and video recordings of classroom interactions and interviews, my own field notes, scanned instructional materials, Trudy’s ACCELA Master’s course assignments, her research journal, and school and state policy documents Because I was interested in exploring questions of multiple and contradictory Discourses of teaching (Bakhtin, 1981; Gee, 1996) and their intertextual connections (Lemke, 1995; Fairclough, 1992) in Trudy’s discursive practices, I first did a close analysis of the entire set of data by assigning codes to emerging themes and patterns that related to questions of student identity and teacher positioning. I found that Trudy’s research journal entries were focal ‘leverage’ texts to analyze because they referred continually to classroom events, ACCELA course work and her interactions with me. Trudy kept the research journal not as an ACCELA course assignment but as a way for her to articulate her research questions and reflections on her teaching during the year. She generously offered to share them with me on a regular basis. My second stage: I also followed Trudy’s intertextual references to their source, when possible. For example, in a November journal entry Trudy referred to a reading I had given her about struggling readers. As part of my analysis of the November entry I analyzed the article she mentioned and also my field notes about our discussion of the reading. I also referred to the English Language Arts curriculum frameworks Trudy was mandated to follow that year and the textbooks she used in her class. I also selected pivotal literacy events/ practices (Barton & Hamilton, 1998) at the beginning, middle and end of the year and did a micro analysis of the classroom transcripts and videos by using the same focused coding with small variations (see Appendix 1 & 2 for more details). At times, my ethnographic approach to the study provided me with ‘insider’ knowledge of school and ACCELA practices that helped me to question certain silences in Trudy’s texts.

8. Ruth Harman 8 Analysis Trudy’s discursive practices at the beginning of the year drew primarily from a normative teaching discourse. By the end of the year Trudy was participating in a more dialogic discourse. Trudy also continued to participate in a district-wide “top down” discourse about teachers On a macro level, Trudy’s discursive practices very rarely included any references to the socio political context of her work. This silence points to her participation in a normative “top down” discourse that positioned teachers in the school district as passive followers of mandatory rules and regulations. On a macro level, Trudy’s discursive practices very rarely included any references to the socio political context of her work. This silence points to her participation in a normative “top down” discourse that positioned teachers in the school district as passive followers of mandatory rules and regulations.

9. Ruth Harman 9 Conflicting concepts of literacy from different discourse communities: November 2003 – February 2004 I read an article today that Ruth gave me that said to concentrate on what these kids do know – bring in their background and interests in writing – then work from there. Maybe I’m focusing too much on grammar. On the other hand, I’m not!!... Don’t I have to concentrate on grammar before emphasizing creativity – or at least balance them both? I don’t know. (11/08/05) How does my cultural background affect my teaching practices of my students who are culturally and linguistically diverse? I know that so many times I just want kids to learn the way I know it (12/12/03) Analysis: 1. Preliminary polarization of two concepts about teaching writing – Activation of background knowledge OR teaching of grammar 2. Hesitation about what should happen Her classroom practices etc But change to more focus on Trudy --- begins to look at how she can be more culturally responsive – grammar classes that are embodied/ break away from more scripted practices where overhead/ a ventriloquist of the MCAS requisites etc Analysis: 1. Preliminary polarization of two concepts about teaching writing – Activation of background knowledge OR teaching of grammar 2. Hesitation about what should happen Her classroom practices etc But change to more focus on Trudy --- begins to look at how she can be more culturally responsive – grammar classes that are embodied/ break away from more scripted practices where overhead/ a ventriloquist of the MCAS requisites etc

10. Ruth Harman 10 Literacy Events as Dialogic Process: March – June 2004 Class is incredible. I love what I’m doing with the kids. We are working on an “Elderly Newsletter.” I used verbal scaffolding, but let them figure out things for themselves (Trudy’s journal, 03/30/04) Marco is so much better when he is up and moving. I really think he is a kinesthetic learner and a verbal learner…. Julian already wrote an article for the newsletter, and Alexandro is doing a great job, as always being a leader! I love this (Trudy’s journal, 04/08/05). In her third course asked to develop extended curricular unit that focuses on one genre and generates students interest/ what’s interesting is that the connection between the French Canadian American and the students is about old people in families/ isolation.. But this common source of interest triggers a whole integrated unit that includes drawing/ writing/ publishing/ presenting of material Natasha, previously constructed as problem (as ELL) becomes the graphic artist for the newsletter and sees the activity as highlight of time at WillowIn her third course asked to develop extended curricular unit that focuses on one genre and generates students interest/ what’s interesting is that the connection between the French Canadian American and the students is about old people in families/ isolation.. But this common source of interest triggers a whole integrated unit that includes drawing/ writing/ publishing/ presenting of material Natasha, previously constructed as problem (as ELL) becomes the graphic artist for the newsletter and sees the activity as highlight of time at Willow

11. Ruth Harman 11 Silences and gaps September 2003 – April 2004 Probing ideological silences and gaps within texts is as important as analyzing the manifest (Eagleton, 1990; Fairclough, 2004) Small house policies: frequent use of suspension; abrupt changing of some students to ‘bad block’; “lock down periods;” marginalization of students. First mention of these issues in Trudy’s research journal: April, 2004 Why the silence about these issues in Trudy’s journal entries? In one of our early discussions at the beginning of the year, Trudy described herself as “at the bottom of the totem pole” because she was a second year teacher. Silenced by her team members, Trudy refrained from commenting on these socio political issues in her journal entries or other ACCELA texts. Through this omission she participated in a district wide discourse about teachers: their work is relegated to inside classroom walls and they need to follow strict policies without question. Throughout the urban school district – at least in the schools I worked - a fear about job security, pink slips and recriminations keep teachers relatively voiceless about school-wide or team-wide decisions unless they have gained a certain status with the administration. In addition, Trudy saw her research world as separate from the socio political context she inhabited at school. Although explicitly asked in her third ACCELA course to think about the socio cultural practices in the school that might serve as a stumbling block to a more dialogic curriculum, Trudy never probed macro level issues of teacher autonomy, Why the silence about these issues in Trudy’s journal entries? In one of our early discussions at the beginning of the year, Trudy described herself as “at the bottom of the totem pole” because she was a second year teacher. Silenced by her team members, Trudy refrained from commenting on these socio political issues in her journal entries or other ACCELA texts. Through this omission she participated in a district wide discourse about teachers: their work is relegated to inside classroom walls and they need to follow strict policies without question. Throughout the urban school district – at least in the schools I worked - a fear about job security, pink slips and recriminations keep teachers relatively voiceless about school-wide or team-wide decisions unless they have gained a certain status with the administration. In addition, Trudy saw her research world as separate from the socio political context she inhabited at school. Although explicitly asked in her third ACCELA course to think about the socio cultural practices in the school that might serve as a stumbling block to a more dialogic curriculum, Trudy never probed macro level issues of teacher autonomy,

12. Ruth Harman 12 Top down institutional discourse Since day one of working in this eighth grade house, kids have been changed from groups…. No group has been the same. I disagree with all the changes that have taken place. It has created chaos (04/05/04) Why the silence? In this text, Trudy positions her students and herself as passive recipients of arbitrary decisions made by her team (e.g. kids have been changed; are changed). However, in the fourth sentence Trudy uses an active participant and process “I disagree.” In more indirect references in the last line, she critiques her colleagues for changing the schedule for their own benefit. In the same journal entry, Trudy continues: It has been a nightmare, and this week I finally put my foot down and went to administration (04/07005) Consequences: moves to other house/ has to start all over again/ positioned again as new teacher. Now in her fourth year working at Willow, Trudy has been in four different houses : Ingersoll – lack of autonomy huge issue in urban schoolsIn this text, Trudy positions her students and herself as passive recipients of arbitrary decisions made by her team (e.g. kids have been changed; are changed). However, in the fourth sentence Trudy uses an active participant and process “I disagree.” In more indirect references in the last line, she critiques her colleagues for changing the schedule for their own benefit. In the same journal entry, Trudy continues: It has been a nightmare, and this week I finally put my foot down and went to administration (04/07005) Consequences: moves to other house/ has to start all over again/ positioned again as new teacher. Now in her fourth year working at Willow, Trudy has been in four different houses : Ingersoll – lack of autonomy huge issue in urban schools

13. Ruth Harman 13 Implications On-site inquiry-based programs an important first step in supporting non dominant students in classrooms and developing critical alliances among diverse partners in a specific school system. (critical: engagement in process of change/ speaking here to ACCELA) Teachers need, however, to be repositioned as vital researchers and participants in any district-wide initiatives on instructional, disciplinary and tracking issues. (critical: speaking to policy makers and others) For critical teacher education school-university partnerships such as the ACCELA Alliance, this particular ethnographic case study has several implications. First, it is clear that developing on-site Master’s degree programs with inquiry-based collaborative and critical literacy courses for in-service teachers is an important first step in the process of developing critical and dialogic alliances among diverse stakeholders in a specific school system. The course work, inquiry research, and classroom support of a research assistant, influenced how Trudy constructed her self, her students, and her teaching practices. By 2005, her third year in ACCELA, Trudy’s praxis in the Master’s program as a teacher/ researcher had repositioned her as a contributor to dialogues with administrators, community and faculty members of the ACCELA alliance. For example, in May 2005, Trudy gave a multi media power point presentation about her developing dialogic literacy practices to her principal, university faculty, and school district representatives. Instead of feeling afraid to openly contest disciplinary, testing, and tracking policies in local school contexts, teachers need to be encouraged to document through careful textual evidence the effects of local and state policies on their students’ learning. Nationwide, teachers’ lack of autonomy to make their own decisions in the classroom is one of the top reasons for high turnover in urban schools (Ingersoll, 2004). Trudy’s lack of power to contest her small house team policies led to her withdrawal from the house:For critical teacher education school-university partnerships such as the ACCELA Alliance, this particular ethnographic case study has several implications. First, it is clear that developing on-site Master’s degree programs with inquiry-based collaborative and critical literacy courses for in-service teachers is an important first step in the process of developing critical and dialogic alliances among diverse stakeholders in a specific school system. The course work, inquiry research, and classroom support of a research assistant, influenced how Trudy constructed her self, her students, and her teaching practices. By 2005, her third year in ACCELA, Trudy’s praxis in the Master’s program as a teacher/ researcher had repositioned her as a contributor to dialogues with administrators, community and faculty members of the ACCELA alliance. For example, in May 2005, Trudy gave a multi media power point presentation about her developing dialogic literacy practices to her principal, university faculty, and school district representatives. Instead of feeling afraid to openly contest disciplinary, testing, and tracking policies in local school contexts, teachers need to be encouraged to document through careful textual evidence the effects of local and state policies on their students’ learning. Nationwide, teachers’ lack of autonomy to make their own decisions in the classroom is one of the top reasons for high turnover in urban schools (Ingersoll, 2004). Trudy’s lack of power to contest her small house team policies led to her withdrawal from the house:

14. Ruth Harman 14 What is critical and what is missing? Reflexive exploration of own discourse formations that constrain my analysis (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992) Broader analysis of discourses of learning and teaching by doing historical comparison Deeper linguistic analysis of patterns of meaning in teacher and student texts Social justice as focal point of study Social hierarchy of discourse communities\ Desire to contribute to social change through study View of language as dialectic of Discourse and discourse Intertextuality as means of social control in discourse communities (exclusion and inclusion)