CULI’s Annual Research Seminar

1. Pisamai Supatranont, Ph.D. Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna Tak supatranont@yahoo.com CULI’s Annual Research Seminar November 28, 2007 at Chulalongkorn University Teaching Engineering Vocabulary with Classroom Concordancing

2. An Action Research To solve a problem of students’ insufficient vocabulary size for academic reading Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna Tak (RMUTL Tak) Engineering students at an undergraduate level • Students’ need = Reading academic texts in English • Due to high technology transfer from the West Background of the Study

3. Problem Teaching reading skills & strategies is unsuccessful Cause Students’ inadequate knowledge of vocabulary Evidence Teacher’s observation Students’ scores from Vocabulary Level Tests (Developed by Nation and Schmitt, Schmitt & Clapham in Nation 2001) = under desirable criteria in all 3 levels regarded as a critical basis for academic reading I. Background of the Study

4. Why? Lexical threshold to academic reading To read academic texts comprehensibly, 95% coverage of words known in that text is the minimum point (Laufer, 1988). Around 3,000 high frequency words are estimated to provide over 90% coverage of academic texts in all disciplines. (Nation, 2001; Coxhead & Nation, 2001; Cobb & Horst, 2001; and Nation & Waring, 1997) General service list (GSL) = 2,000 high frequency words(West, 1953) (and)University word list (UWL) = 800 academic words(Xue & Nation 1984) (or)Academic word list (AWL) = 570 academic words(Coxhead, 1998) i.e. 2,000 words (GSL) = about 80% coverage in most texts 3,000 words (GSL & UWL/AWL) = about 90% in most academic texts (Cobb & Horst, 2001) Background of the Study

5. Knowledge gap = 2000 words 3000 needed words Lexical threshold to academic reading About 3000 words e.g. the GSL & AWL 1000 kn. words Ss’ existing knowledge About 1000 words (based on vocabulary level tests) Therefore To improve reading proficiency, students’ lexical knowledge gap must, first and foremost, be bridged. At RMUTL, Tak

6. However, There are a few EAP courses & no courses focus on vocabulary. Only 1 semester As a result, • Vocabulary learning has to be accelerated. • A conventional method cannot prepare students properly in a short time. Background of the Study Vocabulary component has to be integrated into an existing reading course.

7. The method is applied from a corpus technique widely used for linguistic analysis in lexicography, linguistics, and computational linguistics. When being introduced to language instruction a few decades ago, the method was mostly used among designers of curricula, syllabuses, & materials. At present, it is increasingly encouraged to be used directly in language classrooms. Since a corpus and a concordancer are always used with this method, the term ‘corpus-based’ and ‘concordance-based’ method usually co-occur in related literature. In language pedagogy, the practical aspect of the approach is often referred to as ‘classroom concordancing’. A potential solution to such a problem !!! Classroom Concordancing = the concordance-based method

8. Corpus / Corpora = A collection of texts compiled for linguistic purposes Concordancer = A software program to study language in corpora Concordance = A display of data in a KWIC (keyword-in-context) format Equipped with a corpus and a concordancer: Corpus compilation in an electronic form OCR Study a corpus with a concordancer Methods of text collection Classroom Concordancing

9. Mostly from webpages Corpuscompilation • Some from wordprocessing programs OCR In the Study The Engineering Corpus A purpose-built corpus Description • Around 500,000running words • Compiled from academic texts in engineering: • textbooks & handouts • manuals & instructions • advertisements • news & articles • abstracts of articles / research

10. A Concordancer => WCONCORD • Freeware downloadable from http://www.kapohl.de/ • Developed by Zdenek Martinek & Leslie Siegrist (1996)

11. Build word frequency list • Find frequency of each word • Display statistic information of a corpus Basic Functions of WCONCORD

12. Keyword Concordances in a KWIC (keyword-in-contexts) format Full sentence Source text Immediatecontexts Basic Functions of WCONCORD • Search & sort words • Display word behaviours in various contexts

13. In the Study Classroom concordancing • was applied as a means: • To enable students to learn words in multiple authentic contexts. • To train them necessary skills for independent learning.

14. 1 Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ vocabulary size? Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ ability to transfer lexical knowledge to new contexts? 2 3 4 Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ retention rates of vocabulary knowledge? What are the processes used by the students when dealing with the concordance output? 5 What are students’ attitudes towards the application of the concordance-based method? II. Research Questions

15. To compare the learning effects of the classroom concordancing and the conventional teaching method on vocabulary learning in the following areas. 1.1. Students’ vocabulary size 1.2. Students’ ability to transfer lexical knowledge to new contexts 1.3. Students’ retention of vocabulary knowledge To explore students’ processes in dealing with classroom concordancing. To explore students’ attitudes towards the application of classroom concordancing. Objectives of the Study

16. Hypothesis 1: Students’ scores on the measure of vocabulary size in the experimental group are significantly different from those in the comparison group. Hypothesis 2: Students’ scores on the measure of students’ ability to transfer lexical knowledge to new contexts are significantly different from those in the comparison group. Hypothesis 3: Students’ retention rates in the experimental group are significantly different from those in the comparison group. IV. Statements of Hypotheses

17. Population Engineering students Samples Two intact groups of RMUTL TakEngineering undergraduate students Research Methodology Each group = 26 - 28 students To equate the groups: - Students were matched in pairs according to their scores on the pretest (= 26 pairs). - The mean scores of 2 groups were compared with t-test.

18. Experimental group O1M X1O2 O3 Comparison group O1M X2O2 O3 Research Design A quasi-experimental research A matching-only pretest-posttest comparison group design (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000) O1 = Pretest O2 = Posttest O3 = Delayed test M = Matched participants in pairs according to the scores of O1 X1 = Classroom concordancing X2 = Conventional teaching method

19. Selecting target words Compiling a corpus Designing research instruments Research Process In Preparatory Phase:

20. Weekly Wordlists 12 lists 40 w/list • Target Words • 480 words • words in GSL & AWL • high frequency in corpus • = at least 15 occurrences Corpus 500,000 words Academic texts in engineering Word Selections 12 Lessons 2 versions 40 w/lesson A frequency-based method 4 Review Tasks Every 3 weeks 30 w/task, 120 w in total 50 occurrences in a corpus Test pre-/post-&delayed 101 w in total 80 occurrences in a corpus

21. Teacher Review tasks Syllabus & lessons Pretest / Posttest & Delayed test Period of time Research Process In Experimental Phase: Both groups were treated similarly except the teaching method. The similarities between both groups

22. Research Process Comparison group Without classroom concordancing Experimental group With classroom concordancing Classroom Language laboratory Normal classroom Material Handouts without concordances Handouts with concordance info Activities Hands-on & paper-based Paper-based only The only difference was due to the requirements of the used methods.

23. Teaching / Learning Methods Comparison group Without classroom concordancing Experimental group With classroom concordancing • Students are taught through intensive reading i.e., studying some short passages together with reading and vocabulary exercises. • The target words are contextualized and presented in the reading texts or exercises. • Students are trained: • To access a corpus for vocabulary learning and reading practice • To observe contexts of to-be-studied words in a concordance format. • To find linguistic information from the corpus to complete the assigned tasks. In each week, students will learn the same 40 target words.

24. A Sample Lesson Objective To study words used for giving definitions & examples Target Words term, mean, define, refer, such as etc.

25. Comparison Group Using the conventional method Activity 1: Read the following passage and answer the questions below. Machines (Adapted from corpus information) The terms ‘machine’ means an assembly of parts operating together to perform work. A machine is generally referredtoas any mechanical or electrical device that transmits energy to perform tasks. A ‘simple machine’ is defined as a mechanical component such as bearing, gear, lever, screw whereas a ‘machine tool’ is defined as a powered mechanical device such as lathe, mill, drill etc. The term ‘machine tool’ usually refersto tools that use a power source. A computer-numerical-controlled (CNC) machine means the machine tools which are controlled by computers in manufacturing work. • What is a machine? • What is a simple machine? • What are examples of a simple machine? • What is a machine tool? • What are examples of a machine tool? • What is CNC machine? • How many words are defined in the passages? What are they? • What words or phrases are used to define these words? • What words or phrases are used to give examples of them?

26. Comparison Group Using the conventional method • Activity 2: Study the following sentences. • A machine means an assembly of parts operating together to perform work. • A machine is defined as an assembly of parts operating together to perform work. • A machine refers to an assembly of parts operating together to perform work. • A machine is referred to as an assembly of parts operating together to perform work. • Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B. • Then make up sentences as in the above sentences. • AB • …… Energy a. movement energy • …… Kinetic energy b. an ability to do work • …… A semiconductor c. the flow of electron • …… Electric currentd. a material that may act as a conductor • or as an insulator.

27. Comparison Group Using the conventional method • Activity 3: Complete the following sentences with the given words. • means defined refers referred • ‘Binary’ …………………. twice or two. • In this context, data is ……...…. as a collection of numbers or characters. • A device from the industrial revolution was ……………….. to as an engine. • Technology ………………….. to the study and science of techniques. • Random Access Memory (RAM) ……………… that the memory cells can be accessed in any order. • Artificial Intelligence is …………………. as intelligence shown by anything manufactured by humans. • One AMP is …………… as 625,000,000,000,000,000,000 electrons moving across a circuit every second.

28. Experimental Group Using Classroom Concordancing Activity 1: Search the given words from the corpus to find the answers to the following questions. a). Search the word ‘refer*’. 1. Which form of ‘refer’, active or passive , is mostly used? 2. Which word or words usually come after ‘refer’? 3. When does ‘as’ come after ‘refer to’? 4. What are typical collocations of ‘refer’? b). Search the word ‘mean*’. c). Search the word ‘define*’.

29. Experimental Group Using Classroom Concordancing Activity 2: Search the corpus to find the definitions of the italicwords in the given concordances.

30. Experimental Group Using Classroom Concordancing Activity 3: Each set of the given concordances has the same keywords which are missing from the lines. From the contexts of each line inthe set, determine which given keyword is missing from each set. means defined referred

31. Classroom materials Pretest / Posttest & Delayed test Students’ logs Teachers’ field notes Questionnaires Interview Research Instruments There are six main types of research instruments

32. Questionnaire 2 & Interview Teacher’s Field notes & Students’ Logs Questionnaire 1 Experimental Phase Post-experimental Phase Posttest Delayed Test Pretest Data Collection • Duration: • 1 academic semester • English class = once a week = 150-minute session • deducting 2 weeks for midterm & final exams • total = 16 weeks Stages

33. 1 Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ vocabulary size? Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ ability to transfer lexical knowledge to new contexts? 2 3 Can the concordance-based method significantly increase students’ retention rates of vocabulary knowledge? Findings I. Learning effects: According to the results from conducting MANOVA: Average scores in the experimental group => significantly higher in all measures of definitional knowledge, transferable knowledge and retention rates => with large effect size, especially in the measures of transferable knowledge.

34. H1: def. kn. scores (E) def. kn. scores (C) Findings on Definitional Knowledge t-value > 2.086: p < 0.05   0.72  nearly large

35. H2: tran. kn. scores (E) tran. kn. scores (C) Findings on Transferable Knowledge t-value > 2.086: p < 0.05   1.42  very large

36. H3: retention rate (E) retention rate (C) Findings on Retention Rates • t-value > 2.086: p < 0.05 • of def.  0.44  medium • of tran. = 1.53 = very large

37. Findings on Overall learning effects • t-value > 2.086: p < 0.05 • of posttest  1.68  very large • of delayed test = 0.81 = large

38. 4 What are the processes used by the students when dealing with the concordance output? Findings II. Learning Process: • Analytic and interpretative skills gradually improved satisfactory • at the subsequent stages because of: • Students’ expansion of lexical knowledge • Strategy used to cope with a vast amount of corpus data Although the students could not adequately master some necessary skills, the findings on learning development signified high possibility of such potential. These evidences were concluded that the concordance-based method could not only enhance effective learning but it could also promote learning independence.

39. 5 What are students’ attitudes towards the application of the concordance-based method? Findings III. Learner’s Attitudes: = Much positive towards the method The students considered that: * The method was much useful for studying language. * Its difficulty level was average. * They regarded such difficulties as challenging and interesting, rather than completely discouraging. * Despite being moderately confident, the students liked dealing with the method a lot. * Appreciating its usefulness, the students mentioned that they would continue to practise utilizing the method for their self-study.

40. A corpus is a fantastic resource for providing authentic language input. Corpus information reflects language as it is actually used in real target situations. Classroom concordancing demands ss’ active involvement in learning and this likely consolidates a learning process. Ss’ motivationis increased with authenticity of language closely relevant to their needs as well as with the preference in using a computer. Target words can be selected in a much more confident way. Advantages of classroom concordancing

41. A vast amount of corpus data may be overwhelming for students to cope with. The concordances typically appearing as fragments may look confusing and discourage students. Many of words in contexts are mostly unknown for students with low language proficiency. The difficulty of linguistic analysis may also discourage students. Limitations of classroom concordancing

42. While dealing with a vast amount of corpus data, students must be trained to screen out irrelevant information and focus their attention to particularlanguage points at a time. The increase in vocabulary size likely increases the number of known words in contexts for learning new sets of target words. With low proficient students, the method of linguistic analysis should be simplified and conductedat a level conforming to students’ proficiency level since the purpose of students’ accessing a language corpus is clearly different from that of a linguist. Suggestions

43. Training students to deal with classroom concordancing must be gradually conducted to prevent confusion and discouragement. Variety in classroom activities and exercises are necessarilyincluded in designing lessons and materials. to increase students’ motivation. Despite taking time, the training is worth in moving students towards independent learning. Suggestions

44. Conclusion • Empirical evidence from this classroom-based study can provide significant implication for other similar settings in solving the problem of students’ inadequate lexical knowledge. • Although the process of the concordance-based training • takes time, the goal of independent learning is really worth • being achieved. In most educational settings, English courses • have limited time. Therefore, there is an obvious need for • teachers to help learners become independent so that they can • continue to learn effectively, even after the courses are over. • Training the students how to learn is certainly more rewarding • and longer-lasting than only teaching them to learn something, • but being unable to explore the new ones.

45. References Coxhead, A. (1998). An Academic Word List. ELI Occasional Publication No.18, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Laufer, B. 1988. What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In Lauren, C., and Nordman, L. (eds.). Special language: From humans thinking to thinking machines, 316-323. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Martinek Z. & Siegrist L. (1996). WCONCORD. A downloadable programs available at http://www.kapohl/de Nation, P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. West, M. (1953). A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman, Green & Co.

46. Thank you for your attention. Any Questions?