Characteristics of Leaders

1. Characteristics of Leaders

2. Leadership theories & models Example of the report format: 2.1 Universalist Leadership theories& models 2.1.1 Trait Theories 2.1.2 Personality dimensions 2.1.3 Leader behaviour theories (Ohio State University Study) 2.1.4 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 2.1.5 Blake and McCanse's leadership grid 2.1.6 Tannenbaum & Schmidt’s leadership continuum 2.1.7 Likert's leadership systems 2.2 Contingency leadership models 2.2.1 Fiedler's contingency model 2.2.2 Blanchard's situational leadership model 2.3 Charismatic leadership 2.4 Transactional versus transformational leadership

3. Leadership theories & models Example of the report format: 2.1 Universalist Leadership theories& models 2.1.1 Trait Theories 2.1.2 Personality dimensions 2.1.3 Leader behaviour theories (Ohio State University Study) 2.1.4 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 2.1.5 Blake and McCanse's leadership grid 2.1.6 Tannenbaum & Schmidt’s leadership continuum 2.1.7 Likert's leadership systems 2.2 Contingency leadership models 2.2.1 Fiedler's contingency model 2.2.2 Blanchard's situational leadership model 2.3 Charismatic leadership 2.4 Transactional versus transformational leadership

4. Primary types of leadership processes Leader traits and skills Leader behaviour Influence variables Follower attitudes & behaviour Performance outcomes Situational variables Source: Yukl, 2010, p. 31)

5. Primary types of leadership processes Leader traits and skills Leader behaviour Influence variables Follower attitudes & behaviour Performance outcomes Situational variables Source: Yukl, 2010, p. 31)

6. Universalist leadership theories Assume that leaders tend to adopt the ‘one best’ style of leadership that suits (or reflects) their personality and they apply this to all situations (i.e., is universally applicable). 1. Trait theories • One of the earliest approaches to leadership • Successful leaders have identifiable and consistent ‘traits’ that make them successful • Great Person Theories – “leaders are born”

7. Three questions that guided trait theory research prior to World War II: Which are the common traits underlying all great leaders? Can people learn to become effective leaders? Can we predict people’s leadership potential on the basis of these appropriate traits?

8. Universalist leadership theories • What is a ‘trait’? • ‘…a variety of individual attributes, including aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motives and values. Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way…’ (Yukl, 2010, p.43) • Different to ‘skills’ … ‘the ability to do something in an effective manner’ (Yukl, 2010, p.44) • Skills may be: • Technical • Interpersonal • Conceptual • Can be informed by traits…

9. Universalist leadership theories • So what are these traits?? • Stogdill (1948) identified several traits ‘consistent with effective leadership’ • Self-confidence • Honesty/Integrity (Authentic leadership) • Drive for responsibility (inner motivation) • Initiative • Interpersonal skills • General intelligence

10. Strengths of Trait theory Strengths It is naturally pleasing theory. It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory. It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed. It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.

11. Universalist leadership theories • Trait theories provided some descriptive insight but …little analytical or predictive value (Luthans, 2002. p.581) • Research indicates little relationship between traits and leader success Class exercises: • Complete the exercise: ‘Observational Leadership’

12. Personality dimensions • A key component or foundation to the trait theories • Personality • “the set of unseen characteristics and processes that underlie a relatively stable pattern of behaviour in response to ideas, objects, or people in the environment” (Daft & Pirola-Merlo, 2009, p. 90).

13. Personality dimensions • Entire field in itself… • Origins with Hippocrates and the “four temperaments”: • Sanguine (A)- playful, lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasure-seeking. Optimistic. Imaginative . Can be flighty and changeable • Choleric (F)- egocentric and extroverted. Excitable, impulsive, and restless, aggressive, assertive, passionate. Task oriented. Ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. • Phlegmatic (W)- Inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm, patient, caring, and tolerant. Seek a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast, consistent in their habits, and thus steady and faithful friends. • Melancholic (E)- serious, introverted, cautious or even suspicious. Susceptible to depression and moodiness. Focused and conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own standards and because they are not inherently sociable.

14. Personality dimensions • Freud – focus on personality disorders (neuroses) • Three components of the personality. • Id • The basic instinctual component of us • Ego • The reality component – how we try to attain the Id’s wishes in a social context • Super-ego • Our conscience or morals. • Struggle between the Id and Superego, with the Ego trying to appease both

15. Personality dimensions

16. Personality dimensions • Class Exercise: Just for your own reference, quickly do the Id, Ego and Superego test (link online). It indicates if your three personality components are in balance, or if one is tending to dominate…

17. Personality dimensions • Most management/organisational focus on personality has looked at key dimensions that may influence success… • Cattell’s 16PF model • OCEAN • Big 5 personality dimensions • Myers-Briggs • an extension of Jung’s work on personality

18. Personality characteristics: The Big Five personality dimensions • Extraversion • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Emotional stability (Neuroticism) • Openness to experience.

19. The “OCEAN” (Big 5) of personality Conscientiousness : characteristics include: persistence, dependability, perseverance, responsibility, achievement orientation, hard working O Agreeableness:characteristics such as: co-operation, understanding, warmth, approachability and empathy. Openness to experience : from outgoing, liberal, interested in new things, and imaginative to reserved, conservative, traditional, and conforming C E A N Extroversion:characteristics that influence an individual’s behaviour in social and group settings including dominance, self-confidence, self-belief, assertiveness and sociability Neuroticism / emotional stability.  Emotional stability is typified by being well-adjusted, calm, steady, cool, and secure.

20. Class exercise • Complete the Big Five personality Dimensions test online. The link to the test is on the course webpage in the week 2 folder. • Record your scores. As the test says, now do it for someone who you know well, admire and is in a leadership position (for example a coach of yours, a supervisor at work etc). Use the same person you used in the first exercise. • Identify your key ‘personality characteristics’. Then compare them to the other person you identified. • Where are the similarities and differences? • What effect do you think each dimension may have on being an effective leader?

21. Identifying the underlying personality characteristics important for effective sport referees & umpires (officiating) Influence of personality characteristics on: a)  willingness of people to take up officiating b)    actual performance (effectiveness) of officials c)    aspirations to officiate at higher-level games d)    longevity of officials in the role e)    willingness of people to take up referee coaching of sport officials f) actual performance (effectiveness) of these coaches.

22. Personality Characteristics in Organizations • Other ways of looking at personality in organisations that have become more popular recently. • Core Self-Evaluations (Judge and colleagues) • …stable personality trait which encompasses an individual's subconscious, fundamental evaluations about themselves, their own abilities and their own control. • First employed in studies of job satisfaction • People with high core self-evaluations think positively of themselves, confident in their own abilities. • Conversely, people with low core self-evaluations will have a negative appraisal of themselves and will generally lack confidence. (Judge, Locke, & Durham, 1997)[

23. Core Self-Evaluation • Locus of Control • Tendency to attribute life's events to their your doing or to outside forces beyond your control. • Two basic types • internals and • externals. • Internals believe they control their own environment whereas externals believe outside forces control their lives/work etc. • Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to be satisfied with their job and life because they believe in their own control over the situation.

24. Personality Characteristics in Organizations • Neuroticism (emotional stability) – • Also in Big 5 personality test. • Enduring tendency to experience unpleasant emotions (e.g., anger, anxiety, depression) easily. • Those high in neuroticism react more negatively to stress, are prone to anxiety, and susceptible to feelings of helplessness • CSE focusses on the opposite of neuroticism – emotional stability.

25. Personality Characteristics in Organizations Self-Efficacy -beliefs and expectations about one’s ability to accomplish a specific task effectively Sources of self-efficacy • Prior experiences and prior success • Behaviour models (observing success) • Persuasion • Assessment of current physical & emotional capabilities

26. Self-efficacy for physical activity: I am confident that: • I can participate in physical activity on a regular basis • I can participate in physical activity on a long-term basis • I can participate in physical activity on a regular basis, even if I have to do this on my own Think of examples from your physical activity experiences where your self-confidence may have been questioned (or not questioned) here…

27. Self-efficacy People with strong beliefs about their own capabilities (personal efficacy): • Are more likely to perform at a higher level than someone who has self-doubts about their capabilities. • Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered; • Set themselves challenging goals; • Invest a high level of effort in what they do; • Quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks - resilience • Approach potential stressors or threats with the confidence that they can exercise some control over them. (Bandura, 1997, p.39)

28. Self-fulfilling prophecy: The Galatea effect • the power of one’s self-belief or expectations about one’s own capabilities that influences our future behaviour (performance). • The Galatea effect is linked to our self-confidence “…assurance in one’s own judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities” (Daft & Pirola-Merlo, 2010, p.38). • Self-confidence is very similar to self-efficacy.

29. Personality Characteristics in Organizations Self-Esteem –level of affection or regard we hold ourselves in Tends to be fairly stable • People with higher self-esteem tend to also exhibit more confidence, open to new experiences and risks • People with lower self-esteem tend to avoid the potential for risk, leading to lack of new experiences and opportunities.

30. High self-monitors flexible: adjust behavior according to the situation and the behavior of others can appear unpredictable & inconsistent Low self-monitors act from internal states rather than from situational cues show consistency less likely to respond to work group norms or supervisory feedback Personality Characteristics in Organizations • Self-Monitoring: Behaviour based on cues • from people & situations

31.  Demonstrate higher levels of managerial self-awareness; base behavior on other’s cues and the situation Who Is Most Likely to . . . Low-self monitors High-self monitors Get promoted  Accomplish tasks, meet other’s expectations, seek out central positions in social networks Change employers  Self-promote Make a job-related geographic move

32. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator • Based on Carl Jung’s work • People are fundamentally different • People are fundamentally alike • People have preference combinations for extraversion/introversion, perception, judgment • Briggs & Myers developed the MBTI to understand individual differences

33. MBTI Preferences • You will be ‘typed’ based on your responses as a combination of each of these preferences • ENTP • ISFP • ESFJ

34. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator • Measure of our dominant preferences for taking in information and making decisions • May not be polarised clearly between scales • you can be “a little of both” • No profile is better or worse than another • Helps explain our working style preferences What the MBTI isn’t: • A measure of abilities – it’s not a test • No right or wrong answers • The MBTI is an ‘indicator’ – you can agree or disagree

35. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

36. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator • CLASS EXERCISE: Some time this week, complete the Myers-Briggs online test at home (the link is on the webpage). • Next week, bring your results to this test and we will discuss it.