Issues in Lifelong Development

1. Issues in Lifelong Development Prenatal Development and the Newborn • Conception through Prenatal Development • The Competent Newborn Infancy and Childhood • Physical Development • Cognitive Development Adolescence • Physical Development • Cognitive Development • Social Development Adulthood • Physical Development • Cognitive Development

2. Prenatal Development • Time from conception to birth • Zygote fertilized cell to 14 days • Embryo From two weeks after conception to three months SLG Order the stages of prenatal development

3. Prenatal Development • Fetus Three months after conception to birth • Placenta Brings oxygen and nutrients and takes away waste • Teratogens Chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the fetus. Critical periods in development

4. Teratogens and Critical Periods • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Thalidomide babies • The Mind: Teratogens (13)

5. Developing Brain (Synaptic Pruning) The developing brain overproduces neurons. Neurons are pruned to 23 billion at birth. Pruning continues throughout childhood, while synaptic connections are strengthened

6. The Competent Newborn/Neonate Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, and are precursors to later development • Sucking • Rooting • Swallowing • Grasping/Palmar • Stepping • Startle (Moro) • Babinski SLG Distinguish among the inborn reflexes.

7. Newborn Sensory Abilities and Capabilities • Vision Newborn 8-10” Simple, contoured, black and white early. By 6 months near normal. Preference for novel stimuli, human faces, mom over strangers. • Auditory Ears functional prior to birth, detect in utero sounds. Particularly tune in to human voices • Gustatory and olfactory senses are fully functional • Cutaneous Sensory cortex not fully “wired” SLG Trace the development of sensory and physical abilities during the first year of life

8. Infant Cognitive Awareness and Development Habituation studies Infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones (desensitized). This demonstrates interest and learning In infant studies interest is measured in terms of fixation time, sucking response and heart rate SLG Explain how infant cognitive abilities are measured

9. Infant Physical Abilities and Capabilities • Motor development While there are some cultural variations, experience has little effect on the maturational sequence (roll over, sit up unsupported, crawl, walk) • SciAm: Baby Body Sense SLG Trace the development of sensory and physical abilities during the first year of life

10. Infant Physical Abilities and Capabilities • Maturation Development unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence. Maturation sets the basic course of development, experience adjusts it • Visual cliff research (Gibson and Walk) shows interaction between maturation and experience (depth) SLG Trace the development of sensory and physical abilities during the first year of life

11. Infant Social Awareness/Development • Neonate Imitation • Infant Social Interaction SLG Explain how recent research has changed our view of newborn social awareness and abilities

13. Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development Theory • Observed and recorded children’s behavior for nearly 50 years and formulated a comprehensive theory of development • Searched for a pattern in children’s errors and worked towards logically consistent explanations for these errors • Described how concepts of space, time, causes, and physical objects arise in development • First to conclude that children are active, but immature thinkers • Developed a discontinuous stage model of cognitive development • SLG Describe who Jean Piaget was. Describe his research. What methods did he use?

14. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Major concepts in Piagetian Theory • Schema (or schemata) Mental framework for organizing and interpreting information Schema • Assimilation Modifying new information to fit into existing schema. To make sense of new information (e.g. breast/bottle, use of new computer program) • Accommodation Restructuring one’s schema to better understand or incorporate new information (butterfly, not bird/computer “shopping”). Process of Equilibration • SLG Define the concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation and describe the relationship among them. (Be able to use examples)

15. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Equilibration When a child's interaction with the environment yields results that confirm her mental model, she can easily assimilate the experience. But when the experience results in something new and unexpected, the result is disequilibrium (confusion or frustration). Eventually the child changes her cognitive structures to accommodate the new experience, moving back into equilibrium • SLG Define the the process of equilibration using the concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation

16. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget Overview

17. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2) • Basic physical development from reflexes/instinctive through coordinated circular reactions. Some simple learning • No representational thought until end of stage with beginnings of language • Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety • Emergence of object permanence Object Permanence SLG Describe the tasks and accomplishments of the Sensorimotor stage

18. Contemporary Criticisms of Piaget Sensorimotor Stage • Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think nor could they grasp abstract concepts or ideas • Recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage are capable of abstraction and sophisticated thought (Wynn, Baillargeon, Gopnik, et.al.) SLG Describe how Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young children

19. Scientist in the Crib & The Philosophical Baby • Contemporary theorists build on and revise Piaget’s theory of child development (Gopnik, Baillargeon, etal) • Infants far more capable than previously thought • Scientist in the CribChildren come into the world with hypotheses regarding the functioning of the world. They test ideas and revise Gopnik on Colbert • The Philosophical Baby Infants have an inherent, early moral sense Infant CogLab Bloom Gopnik Lecture Meltzoff and Kuhl

20. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) • Children develop the ability to represent objects mentally (related to language development) • Basic mental operations are mastered (ordering, combining, separating) • The pre-operational child can appreciate simple problems but lack critical linkages. • They are not internally consistent. Intuitive rather than logical reasoning SLG Describe the tasks and accomplishments (and kinds of thinking) are associated with the Preoperational stage. What changes have occurred?

21. Limits on Preoperational Thought • Egocentrism Child fails to recognize viewpoints other than their own. Unable to empathize or share. “Collective monologues" Egocentrism • Animism Inanimate objects are imagined to have life or mental processes. Animism • Centration Inability to take into account more than one factor (centers on one bit of information only) • Irreversibility Inability to think through a series of events or steps in a process and then mentally reverse. • Unable to grasp principle of conservation until late stage • SciAm The Magic Years

22. Pre-Operational (2-7 years) • Child only able to focus on one salient feature of task at a time [lacks principle of conservation] Preoperational SLG Describe the tasks and accomplishments and kinds of thinking are associated with the Preoperational stage.

23. Theory of Mind During the Preoperational stage, children begin to develop the ability to understand that the mental states of others differ from their own. When this happens they begin forming a theory of mind. This is the basis for empathy and complex social interactions SciAm A Change of Mind False Belief Test SLG Describe the changes in thinking associated with the Preoperational Stage

24. Concrete Operational Stage • Children are capable of solving problems by manipulating information. Use simple reasoning to solve problems, and do basic computation • Understanding of principle of conservation (volume, area and numbers) is demonstrated Concrete Operational • Less impulsive, “childlike” and gullible • Still unable to think abstractly SLG Describe the tasks and accomplishments associated with the Concrete Operational Stage. What changes have occurred?

25. Formal Operational Stage • Emerges in adolescence. Individuals are able to engage in systematic reasoning, hypothesis testing, and abstract thought, e.g., the ability to think symbolically, engage in hypothetical thinking, ponder or think deeply about issues and concepts such as love, fairness and existence • Deductive reasoning • Hypothetical Thinking • Capable of metacognition, the ability to think about thinking SLG Describe the cognitive changes and abilities associated with the Formal Operational Stage occurred?

26. Evaluation of Piagetian theory • General framework is the foundation of later developmental theory and remains very influential • Recognizes and validates a number of ideas regarding growth and development across cultures • Development leads learning • Emphasizes “immaculate transition” (developmental discontinuity) • Much of it questionable or incomplete in detail • Underestimated abilities/cognition of infants • No obvious explanation for increase in "power" of cognitive system with age (e.g., how can child simply be more clever?) • Little emphasis on social or emotional factors, or on abnormal development/developmental disorders. One size fits all approach • Many question the assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development (discontinuous v. continuous development) • SLG Evaluate Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

27. Lev Vygotsky and the Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development • Who was Lev Vygotsky? • What were major ideas did he introduce in the area of cognitive development? • How do his theories differ from those proposed by Piaget? SLG Compare/contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky

28. Lev Vygotsky and Social Constructivism • No fixed stages of development but describes “leading activities” typical of certain age periods (continuous) • There is a close link between the acquisition of language and development of thinking • Language carries culture. It stores the history of social experience and is a tool for thought • Emphasizes Zone of Proximal Development and role of teachers in leading development • Vygotsky Intro • Vygotsky Play SLG Compare/contrast the theories of Vygotsky and Piaget

29. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development • The difference between what a child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance is the ZPD

30. Origins of Attachment Theory • ImprintingFAP occurs in many species of animals (Lorenz’s Geese) not humans • Attachment • Humans form bonds with those who care for them in infancy • Behaviorist explanations prevailed. Association of caregiver with food, safety, security • Freudian explanations SLG Describe the origins of attachment theory

31. John Bowlby and Attachment Theory • Attachment The close emotional bonds of affection that develop between an infant and its mother • Attachment theorists challenged the prevailing theories of Behaviorists (secondary reinforcement) and Freud (oral gratification) • Introduced the consequences of disruption and deprivation • John Bowlby • Controversy of maternal deprivation Rutter

32. Harry Harlow and Attachment Theory Harlow’s research showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of contact comfort, choosing it over nourishment (simple reinforcement) Contact comfort as a primary reinforcer Harlow experiments Harlow Justified? SLG Describe the Harlow’s research. What did he prove?

33. Attachment Theory: Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiment Ainsworth’s research Placed in a strange situation, 70% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their mother leave, they show distress, but recover Strange Situation experiment Old SSE footage The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment SLG Describe Mary Ainsworth’s Strange situation experiment. What concepts did she introduce?

34. Ainsworth and Attachment Theory • Secure Attachment - Protests mother's departure and quiets on the mother's return, accepts comfort and returns to exploration. Child playful, less inhibited and more sociable • Insecure • Avoidant Attachment - Shows few signs of distress. Avoids and shows no preference toward parent on return • Ambivalent Attachment - Shows distress on mother's departure, anger, not comforted by on return • Disorganized Attachment – Shows confusion, apprehension. Lack of coherent coping strategy. Shows signs of both ambivalent or avoidant behavior SLG Distinguish between secure attachment and insecure attachment and its variant forms

35. Ainsworth and Attachment Theory Adult Manifestations • Secure Attachment – Good esteem. Trusting, lasting relationships and social interactions • Avoidant Attachment – Problems with intimacy, forming relationships and ability to share or express emotion • Ambivalent Attachment –Reluctant to form close relationships. Fears abandonment. Devastated by loss • Ainsworth SLG Know some of the adult manifestations of insecure and secure attachment

36. Child-Rearing Practices SLG List/distinguish among the four types of parenting styles. Provide examples of each based on people you know

37. Parenting Styles (Baumrind) • Authoritarian Tightly control children’s behavior and insist on obedience. May produce children with poor communication skills; moody, withdrawn, or distrustful • Permissive-indifferent Too little parental control. Often indifferent and neglectful. Children tend to become overly dependent and lack social skills and self-control • Permissive-indulgent Parents are attentive and supportive, but do not set limits on behavior. Children tend to be immature, disrespectful, impulsive, and out of control SLG List/distinguish among the four types of parenting styles. Provide examples of each based on people you know

38. Parenting Styles (Baumrind) • Authoritative Parents provide firm structure, but are not overly controlling. Parents listen to their children’s opinions and explain their decisions, bur are still clearly in charge. Children tend to become self-reliant and socially responsible. Optimal parenting style SLG List/distinguish among the four types of parenting styles. Provide examples of each based on people you know

39. Developing Morality Lawrence Kohlberg sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as the Heinz dilemma (anybody?) He posited that there were three broad stages of moral development, six overall SLG List the three broad stages of moral development . Create a moral dilemma and posed it to one of your peers or siblings. Record

40. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Pre-Conventional (Before age 9) • Avoid punishment • Gain rewards • Conventional (Prior to adolescence) • Gains approval/conformity • Law and order/social contract • Post-Conventional • Human right/democratic freedoms • Universal ethics Moral reasoning is tied to cognitive ability and is age predicted. Great variation, however

41. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory • Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level. Are such people underdeveloped? • People can operate on multiple levels (not stage-bound) • Moral reasoning is not necessarily predictive of moral action • Heinz (and similar scenarios) are not real, and so…? • Theory does not take cultural differences into account. TWE is morality culturally based? • Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality? Why? (Gilligan)

42. Social Development - Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

43. Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development • Erikson is a neo-Freudian, but his theory is more socially and culturally-based. • Development unfolds in a both predetermined way and on the basis of the success (or lack of) of previous stages. • Each stage involves certain developmental tasks and crises or conflicts (trust-mistrust). • Balance must be achieved. If stage is managed well, a virtue, or psychosocial trait develops which supports future stage development

44. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development • Trust – Mistrust (Infancy 0-1 year) • Infant seeks familiarity, consistency, reliability. Infant needs to see world as reliable and loving • Autonomy – Shame and Doubt (1-2 years) • Development of sense of child’s independence, e.g.? Parents should not push nor discourage • Initiative – Guilt (Preschool 3-5 years) • To play. To imagine, broaden skills, cooperate, lead and follow • Industry - Inferiority (School age 6-12 years) • To work. Mastering skills required by society, both academic and social. Conceive and carry out plans

45. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development • Ego Identity – Role Confusion (Adolescence) • Who am I? Need to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. Time of psycho-social moratorium in west • Psycho-social moratorium (Erikson 1968) • An agreed upon “period of delay before an adolescent’s final commitment to a mature adult identity” • May involve a prolonged state of confusion - active experimentation with different roles, values and beliefs • Many societies provide for clear “rite(s) of passage to help demarcate childhood from adulthood

46. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development • Intimacy – Isolation (Adulthood 18-30 years) • Psychosocial task(s) - To establish close relationships with a clear sense of who you are. Mutuality of devotion • Generativity - Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) • To cultivate proper balance between generativity (extension of love into the future) and stagnation (degree of self-absorption-lack of contribution) • Integrity - Despair (Late Adulthood) • Reconciling loss of usefulness and relevance (in youth-based society), coping with biological failure, adjustment to constant loss of self and others. Goal is ego integrity

47. Value and Criticisms of Erikson • Lifelong consideration of development • Recognizes ego growth and self awareness • Later personality is premised in part on earlier influences • Emphasis on social and cultural influences (v. individual) • Freudian connections/influence. • All criticisms associated with stage theories about development. Discontinuity v. more incremental, timing, cultural difference • Western, industrialized bias • Oversimplification