Style in English and Arabic

1. Style in English and Arabic • Prof. Walid M. Amer

2. stylistics style linguistics

3. I. Concepts of Style • A person’s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use e.g. Hemingway’s style Walid Amer’s style Noam Chomsky's style

4. 2. Some or all of the language habits shared by a group of people at one time,or over a period of time. e.g. Elizabethan style the style of legal document the style of news reporting/news bulletin

5. 3. A characteristic of “good” or “beautiful” literary writings. e.g. ornate style terse style plain style

6. Definition of style 1- Manner indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most (or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language.

7. 2- A Dictionary of Literary Terms defines style as: “The characteristic manner of expression in prose or verse; how a particular writer says things. The analysis and assessment of style involves examination of a writer’s choice of words, his figures of speech, the devices (rhetorical or otherwise), the shape of his sentences, and the

8. shape of his paragraphs-- indeed, of every conceivable aspect of his language and the way in which he uses it. Style defies complete analysis or definition… it is the tone and voice of the writer himself; as peculiar to him as his laugh, his walk, his handwriting and the expression on his face”

9. II. Concepts of Stylistics 1. Stylistics is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used; it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.

10. 2. Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of style.

11. Definition of Stylistics Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners / linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.

12. Linguistic Description • The level of phonology / graphology • The level of lexis • The level of syntax / grammar • The level of semantics

13. 1. The level of phonology / graphology • Phonology is the study of the rules for the organization of the sound systems of a language. • Graphology is the study of the writing system of a language.

14. 2. The level of lexis • Lexicology studies the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings. 3. The level of syntax / grammar • Syntax refers to rules for ordering and connectting words into sentences.

15. 4. The level of semantics • Semantics studies the overall meaning of a text, the meaning derived from the way sentences / utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used / uttered and some rhetoric devices.

16. III. The Scope of Studies Literary Stylistics General Stylistics

17. Literary stylistics: concentrating on the unique features of various literary works,such as poem, novel, prose, drama… • General stylistics: concentrating on the general features of various types of language use, including literary discourses and other practical styles

18. General stylistics • Genres: news reports, advertisements, public speeches, scientific treatises, leagal documents and other practical styles… • Attitudes: formal and informal language • Media of communication: spoken English, written English, e-discourse • Regions: British English, American English and other regional dialects • Social groups: standard and non-standard language

19. Style is intended to mean a mode of expression that differentiates one person from the other Style is of three types: • the prescriptive • the descriptive • and goal-directed style

20. 1. Prescriptive style is the familiar \correct" style that is taught in school and in books of style When we were taught English, we learned rules of usage like \Do not end a sentence with a preposition" • 2. Descriptive Style descriptive style accounts for the style that is actually used by native speakers of English

21. 3. Goal-Directed Computational Style • Good writers know that they must understand their audience in order to write effectively. • Knowing the audience allows writers to modify their style to effectively convey the content of their labour in a form acceptable to their audience. For example, a physicist explaining quantum mechanics to a general audience would probably choose to write clearly and simply, in order to be understandable to the audience. • The same physicist writing a paper for a specialized conference would probably choose to write formally and somewhat obscurely, in order to appear authoritative.

22. Stylistic asymmetries ( English and Arabic ): • Style is very important issue in translation, it is the vehicle which conveys the meaning, when the style is handsome and well built, the translation will be expressive and prefect. • English and Arabic are divergent in style, each language has its own style which differs from the other. This mater may impose serious problems to the translators.

23. Some of the difference between the two styles can be summarized as in the following: 3.2.1 Arabic style tends to scatter the similar thoughts while English style tends to gather them e.g: • In a sentence like: - The Government and people of Palestine. • In this sentence English style used the word people directly after the word Government. While Arabic translation or counterpart of this sentence is: حكومة فلسطين وشعبها.

24. 3.2.2 In Arabic, the heavy element comes first. By contrast, English style puts it later. In a sentence like: • In his speech on the state of press in the Gaza strip, the information minister declared … . • The Arabic counterpart of this sentence is: • صرح وزير الإعلام في حديث له عن أحوال الصحافة في قطاع غزة بأنه. • But not في حديث له عن أحوال الصحافة في قطاع غزة صرح وزير الإعلام بأنه

25. 3.2.3 Arabic style uses the conjunction "و " or "أو" before each element of the sentence, English style on the other hand doesn’t use this conjunction except before the final element. • In a sentence like: • اشترى علي كتاباً ودفاتر وأقلام حبر وأقلام رصاص. • English translation of this sentence is: • Ali bought books, copybooks, pens and pencils.

26. 3.2.4: The position of adverbs and adjective in English and Arabic. • In English the adverb comes between the auxiliary and the main verb, but in Arab it takes other positions. Consider the problem has soon ended. • The Arabic counter part is: • سرعان ما انتهت المشكلة.

27. One of the features of English sentence is that it develops rapidly. He who reads for Chaucer may find difficulties in understanding the language used by Dickens for example. • Another feature of English is that it easily accepts new vocabulary even those which are colloquial, so we sometimes find ourselves obliged to renovate our dictionaries from time to time. • ]

28. Arabic, on the other hand, does not have the same rate in accepting new vocabulary. This matter may be due to the fact that Arabic has huge number of words which allows it to convey any meaning or express any situation, relaxably. • Despite this, flexibility is an essential feature of Arabic. It accepts any new vocabulary, especially jargons. Many words entered Arabic and are used frequently as if they are Arabic original word. [Nejeeb, 1995

29. English style is characterized as: 1. The multi-use of complex sentences. English has one complex sentence with two or more simple sentences. Ex: He visited Egypt so that he might see the pyramids and enjoy them. 2. English prefers to delay the predicate to the end of the sentence just for the purpose of evocation. - They traveled to London; the purpose of their traveling was studying medicine. 3 .

30. . The frequent use of passive even when the subject is known. - The building was designed by a famous designer who was killed in an accident. 4. English sentence begins with a subject followed by finite verb. Since English word order is SVO while standard Arabic word order is VSO. - Ali studies English

31. 5.The position of English word in the sentence identifies or shows its syntactic function, the subject comes first, then the verb followed by the complement, however in Arabic sentence, the function of the word is identified by inflections come at the end of the words “overt” "case assignment nominative, accusative and genitive". - Sami cleaned his room, which was untidy.

32. By contrast Arabic style is characterized as below: • The Arabic text or paragraph consists mainly of small units which are called atoms [Semis languages are called Atomic languages]. Its sentences connect together by using some simple conjunctions like wa "و" لعب الولد الكرة واستمتع بوقته، ثم عاد لمنزله وأخذ يطالع دروسه "The boy played football, enjoyed his time, returned home and began to revise his lessons".

33. Unlike English, Arabic tends to use the predicate directly after the subject. سافر علي للدراسة " Ali traveled to study" • Arabic style doesn't use the passive except when the subject is unknown. قُتل الرجل " The man was killed" • Arabic sentence usually begins with the verb followed by the subject plus the object. قرأ أحمد الدرس "Ahmed studied the lesson" • Arabic is pro-drop language, therefore the subject can be dropped and referred to syntactically as small pro, as in: He went to school. "ذهب إلى المدرسة"

34. Style and Errors in Translation From Arabic into English Section I: Grammatical Errors in Translation from Arabic into English

35. (Use of Infinitive )It is preferable to start with a suitable indefinite infinitive, مصدر نكرة, when translating sentences which start with an indefinite infinitive. For instance, in the following sentence: ‘A just peace will bring prosperity to the region,” it is preferable to say: إن تحقيق (أو إقرار أو إحلال أو إقامة) سلام عادل سيجلب الازدهار إلى المنطقة, • rather than saying: إن سلاما عادلا سيجلب الازدهار إلى المنطقة

36. Use of Relative PronounThe relative pronoun is used after both definite and indefinite nouns in English, but should be used only after definite nouns in Arabic. Thus, “a solution which is based on justice is a permanent one,” should be translated into Arabic as: إن حلا يقوم على العدل حل دائم.Different PrepositionsSome languages, such as English, permit consecutive verbs and nouns to be followed by different prepositions. For example, “he expressed his approval of and support for the resolution.”This way of expression is not allowed in Arabic. It cannot be said, أعرب عن موافقته على وتأييده للقرار.

37. In such a case, the noun governed by the prepositions should be given after the first part. The structure should be as follows: أعرب عن موافقته على القرار وتأييده له.However, there is an alternative way to deal with this matter, namely, the use of two infinitives which are followed by the same preposition. Thus, it could be said, أعرب عن إقراره وتأييده للقرار, with إقرار replacing موافقة. Additionally, it is incorrect in Arabic to have two consecutive verbs, only one of which requires a preposition. Thus, it could not be said نحن نقول وندعو إلى ذلك, “we say and call for that.” The correct sentence should be: نحن نقول ذلك وندعو إليه. 

38. Use of Present Perfecthe present perfect tense should not always be translated in the past tense in Arabic, especially when making reference to positions, opinions or situations, as the present perfect has a present connotation, which might be lost when translated in the past tense in Arabic. For example, “we have supported struggle against poverty.” It is preferable to translated it as follows: نؤيد الكفاح ضد الفقر, rather than أيدنا الكفاح ضد الفقر, because the last form might be taken to mean a past tense, whereas the speaker points at the continuing present. 

39. Translation of “Such”The word “such” should not always be translated as مثل. For example, in the sentence, “Let us adopt such measures as will ensure peace,” the correct translation is فلنعتمد من التدابير ما يكفل السلام.Use of the CommaIt is noted that in a series of nouns in English, the comma is used between the nouns except for the last, where it would be preceded by “and” or “or.” For example, “students, graduates or researchers,” and “reporters, translators and interpreters.”

40. In Arabic, however, it is incorrect to use the comma instead of the conjunction. What is needed is repetition of the conjunction. Thus, it is not correct to say, المدونون، المترجمون والمترجمون الشفويون. The structure should be as follows: المدونون والمترجمون والمترجمون الشفويون. Translation of “Such”The word “such” should not always be translated as مثل. For example, in the sentence, “Let us adopt such measures as will ensure peace,” the correct translation is فلنعتمد من التدابير ما يكفل السلام

41. Use of ضدTranslation of “against” as ضد should be avoided if the word على expresses the intended meaning. For example, “to exert pressure against a person,” or “to commit aggression against a neighboring state,” should be translated as ممارسة الضغط على شخص or ارتكاب عدوان على دولة مجاورة.Use of من خلال and بExcessive use of من خلال should be avoided, especially where the instrumental letter ب could be used instead. For example, “it is achieving its objective through diplomacy,” and “this can be achieved through positive action.” The preferred translation would be إنه يحقق هدفه بالدبلوماسية and يمكن تحقيق ذلك بالعمل الايجابي.

42. Use of هوWhere the subject and predicate of nominal sentences are in the definite form, insertion of an appropriate pronoun between the subject and the predicate is needed. For example, the translation of the sentence, “The book is the product of his thought” would be الكتاب هو نتاج فكره. When the subject is definite and the predicate is indefinite, there is no need to insert such a pronoun. Thus, the translation of “the article is boring” is المقال مملّ.

43. Specification (التمييز)In English sentences where specification is used, such as, “he did this in disregard/contempt of that,” the correct translation would be to use the تمييز، فعل ذلك تجاهلا/احتقارا لذلك and not فعل ذلك في تجاهل/في احتقار لذلك.Translation of “With”Translation of “with” always into مع would be erroneous. There are cases where “with” should be translated as ب. For example, the sentence “with common efforts, we shall achieve our objective,” should be translated as follows: ببذل الجهود المشتركة سنحقق هدفنا. “With” is used in other meanings, including بفضل، نظرا إلى، بالاقتران ب، إذ، بالاشتراك مع، بمواكبة، لكون.

44. The Translation of “Only”In many cases, it is preferable not to translate “only” as فقط. Rather, the structure لبست ... إلا should be used. For example, it is preferable to have “Maintained for local consumption only” translated as ليست مصانة إلا للاستهلاك المحلي and not مصانة للاستهلاك المحلي فقط. Translation of “Free”Needless to say that it is erroneous to translated the word “free” always as حرّ. “Free” also has the meaning of خال. For example, the translation of the phrase “a zone free of weapons” should be منطقة خالية من الأسلحة. The phrase “free of charge” is translated as بالمجان. 

45. Section II: Arabic Style Combination of a Verb in the Present Tense with a Verb in the Past TenseA verb in the present tense cannot be combined with a verb in the past tense without repeating mention of the active subject of a verbal clause. For example, it is erroneous to say, نصَّ البيان على ذلك ويدعو إلى ذلك. The correct writing is نصَّ البيان على ذلك وهو يدعو إلى ذلك. Also, it is wrong to write إن واشنطن استمرت في عنادها وتواصل سياستها. The correct sentence would be إن واشنطن استمرت في عنادها وهي تواصل سياستها

46. .Other forms of asymmetry in parallel constructions should be avoided. For example, the following structure should be avoided: نأمل في اتخاذ قرار من شأنه تحقيق الاستقرار وينص على إدانة المعتدي, because in this sentence, a verb, ينص, cannot be a parallel with a clause, which is من شأنه. Rather, two verbs mentioned in parallel are needed: نأمل في اتخاذ قرار يكون من شأنه تحقيق الاستقرار وينص على إدانة المعتدي. Moreover, it is erroneous to say إن بلدي يدعو اتخاذ قرار وأن ندرس الوضع. Instead, it should be said either إلى اتخاذ قرار ودراسة الوضع, namely, using two infinitives, or إلى أن نتخذ قرارات وأن ندرس الوضع, namely, using two verbs.

47. Use of كلماIt is preferable not to repeat mention of the word كلما in the translation of sentences as the following: The longer we wait, the greater the danger, كلما طال انتظارنا كلما زاد الخطر. The translation should be as follows: كلما طال انتظارنا زاد الخطر.Erroneous Use of the وUse of the و before the relative pronoun in cases as the following is erroneous: كتبت الكتاب المفيد والذي كلمتني عنه في الأسبوع الماضي. This sentence means, “I wrote the useful book and that about which you spoke to me a week ago

48. .” This means that two things were written, namely, the useful book and that about which a person spoke to me. However, this is not meant by the above-mentioned sentence. The change in meaning was caused by the insertion of و before الذي. The correct structure, then, should be كتبت الكتاب المفيد الذي ..., unless the speaker intended to refer to two books.

49. Use of إلاّ أنّIt would be incorrect to use إلاّ أنّ as a tool of rectification after use of رغم أنّ. For example, إن هذه القصة رغم أنها شيقة إلاّ أنّها لا تخلو من عيوب. Rather, it should be said إن هذه القصة رغم أنها شيقة لا تخلو من عيوب. To repeat rectification by using إلاّ أنّ would be a double rectification, which is negation of negation, which is, in effect, confirmation.Use of بالنسبة and the Transitive VerbIt would be erroneous to use بالنسبة in sentences such as هذا الموقف مُرْض بالنسبة إلى حكومتي. The phrase of بالنسبة is not needed. What should be said would be هذا الموقف مُرْض لحكومتي, the last phrase, لحكومتي, being the object of the active participle مُرْض.

50. The Definite Article with غَيْرThe word غَيْر cannot come with the definite article ال. Rather, the definite article should precede the word following غير. For example, هذا البيان غير الصحيح, and not هذا البيان الغير صحيح.