Chapter Six

1. Chapter Six Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development in Middle Childhood

2. 6.1 Cognitive Development:Learning Objectives • What are the distinguishing characteristics of thought during Piaget’s concrete-operational and formal-operational stages? • How do children use strategies and monitoring to improve learning and remembering?

3. More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget’s Version Concrete-operational period (7-11 years) • Can perform mental operations – actions that can be performed on objects or ideas that yield a consistent result • Mental operations are limited to concrete problems in the here and now • Cannot deal effectively with abstract or hypothetical problems

4. More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget’s Version (cont’d) Formal-operational period (11 years to adult) • Can reason abstractly and hypothetically • Understand that a hypothetical problem need not correspond to the real world • Use deductive reasoning to draw logical conclusions from the facts • Engage in combinatorial reasoning — generating all the different ways a given number of items can be arranged

5. The Information-Processing View: Strategies for Learning and Remembering • Working memory (WM): the temporary storage and use of information that one needs to perform a task (e.g., looking up and dialing a new phone number; taking a test) • Limited in capacity and how long it lasts • Most thought takes place in WM • Long-term memory (LTM): the storehouse for memory that is permanent and of unlimited capacity • Information is transferred into LTM, stored in it, and retrieved from it

6. The Information-Processing View: Memory Strategies • 7- to 8-year-olds: use less effective learning and memory strategies, such as rehearsal — simply repeating new information over and over in a rote fashion • Older children: use more effective learning and memory strategies, including • taking notes and keeping a calendar • organization — structuring new information into related categories • elaboration — making new information memorable by embellishing it

7. The Information-Processing View: Metacognition Metamemory • Our intuitive understanding of memory • Diagnosing memory problems accurately and monitoring their effectiveness Children gradually understand memory through their theory of mind, including that • memory is fallible • some memory tasks are easier than others

8. The Information-Processing View: Metacognition (cont’d) Metacognition: being aware of how perception, cognition, intentions, and knowledge work, and adjusting strategies related to each Metacognitive knowledge:understanding connections among goals, strategies, monitoring, and outcomes Cognitive self-regulation:identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and monitoring accurately • Successful learners better cognitively self-regulate

10. 6.2 Aptitudes for School: Learning Objectives • What is the nature of intelligence? • Why were intelligence tests first developed? What are their features? • How well do intelligence tests work? • How do heredity and environment influence intelligence? • How and why do test scores vary for different racial and ethnic groups?

11. Theories of Intelligence Psychometricians: specialists trained in measuring psychological characteristics, such as intelligence and personality Test development • Administer different tests intended to measure the same attribute to numerous people • Determine whether scores on the different tests are highly positively correlated • Yes? Tests couldbe valid, i.e., measure the same attribute, such as intelligence

12. Theories of Intelligence (cont’d) Analyses of tests yielded several theories of intelligence (IQ), such as • Spearman’s g:IQ is due to one generalfactor (g) reflecting allaspects of ability • The Thurstones: IQ consists of 7 specificabilities (e.g., perceptual speed, spatial relations) • Hierarchical views: IQ consists of both general and specific components (there are several competing hierarchical theories)

13. The Hierarchical View of Intelligence John Carroll (1993) • There are three levels of IQ • Top — the g factor (general IQ) • Middle — 8 broad subcategories of IQ • Lowest — several specific skills associated with each of the 8 subcategories • His theory is purely psychometrically driven • It ignores research and theory on cognitive development

15. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • Derived from several sources • Piaget’s and information-processing theories • Studies of brain-damaged people • Studies of exceptionally talented • Nine types of intelligences (3 traditional; 6 not) • 1-3: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial • 4-9: Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalistic, Existential • Each has own developmental trajectory and is regulated by distinct brain regions

16. Gardner’s Theory (cont’d) • Educational implications of Gardner’s theory • Schools should foster all 9 intelligences • Teachers should capitalize on each child’s strongest intelligence, but also engage many different intelligences • Schools adopting these approaches report multiple student benefits • Educational benefits are in need of more scientific testing

17. Emotional Intelligence • Goleman first synthesized relevant research • Many models, such as Mayer et al.’s multi-dimensional one • Perceiving different emotions accurately • Understanding own and others’ emotions • Regulating one’s emotions • Higher scores on relevant tests predict more satisfying interpersonal relationships, greater self-esteem, and greater workplace effectiveness

18. Sternberg: Theory of Successful Intelligence • Successful intelligence is using one’s abilities skillfully to achieve personal goals • Some goals may be more or less appropriate depending on cultural or environmental context • Personal goals are achieved via 3 abilities • Analytic — analyzing problems and generating different solutions • Creative— dealing adaptively with new situations and problems • Practical — knowing which solution will work

19. Binet & the Development of Intelligence Testing • Binet & Simon: asked in 1904 to develop tasks to identify who would be unable to learn in French schools without special instruction • First test distinguished between “bright” vs. “dull” children • Mental age: difficulty of the problem a child solved correctly, such that • bright children had an MA of children older than they were (e.g., 8-year-olds having an MA of 10) • dull children had an MA of children younger than they were (e.g., 6-year-olds having an MA of 3)

20. The Stanford Binet • Lewis Terman at Stanford University adapted Binet & Simon’s test • Terman’s intelligence quotient (IQ) compares person’s mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) • IQ = MA/CA x 100 • Average IQ score always is 100. Higher than average is +100. Lower than average is < 100. Example: • 25/25 x 100 = 1.0 x 100 = 100 • 30/25 x 100 = 1.2 x 100 = 120 • 20/25 x 100 = 0.8 x 100 = 80

21. Intelligence Testing • IQ tests no longer use the MA/CA comparison for computation of IQ • Today, children’s performance on IQ tests are compared to the average IQ scores of children their own age • An IQ score • = 100 denotes average • > 100 is above average • < 100 indicates less than average

22. Contemporary IQ Tests • The Stanford Binet V - the current (2003) version of Binet’s test • The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition (WISC-IV) • The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (K-ABC-II)

23. Do Tests Work? IQ test scores have been shown to predict • school grades, achievement test scores, and years of education • occupational success • performance or earnings in complex jobs The predictions are not perfect • Ex.: correlations range from .5 -.7 for school grades, achievement tests, and education Self-discipline can predict school grades better than IQ

24. Hereditary & Environmental Factors • Fraternal twins IQ scores are • less similar than those for identical twins • similar to siblings with the same biological parents • more similar than those of adopted siblings • Adopted children’s IQ scores are more similar to their biological than adoptive parents; this effect is stronger with increasing age • Fig. 6.3 shows greater similarity in siblings’ IQ scores with greater genetic similarity

26. Hereditary & Environmental Factors (cont’d) • Children with high IQ scores have well-organized homes and lots of play materials • IQ scores have increased by 10 points over a 25-year period • Stimulating and responsive intervention programs can affect economically disadvantaged children’s IQ

27. The Impact of Interventions • Studies show Head Start is effective in increasing basic reading readiness and social skills • Intervention programs increase students’ IQ and school achievement scores • Economic and social consequences of poverty justify use of these interventions

28. Impact of Ethnicity and Social Class • Studies show differences in IQ scores among ethnic groups • Asian Americans > European Americans > Hispanic Americans > African Americans • These differences are impacted by socioeconomic status (SES) • However, IQ test score differences persist after accounting for SES differences

29. A Role for Genetics? • While ethnic groups differ in IQ scores, heredity does not adequately explain them • Most researchers agree that environmental influences are present • Differences in IQ • between ethnic groups reflect differences in environments • within any one ethnic group are partly hereditary

30. Experience with Test Contents • Cultural biases in IQ tests may yield • higher scores for economically advantaged European Americans • lower scores for economically disadvantaged children from other ethnic groups • Culturally-fair IQ tests include items based on common experiences across cultures

32. Test-Taking Skills • Ethnic groups differ in how much experience they have taking standardized tests • These experiences may differentially affect test-taking skills • Different ethnic or cultural groups may have test-taking skills that diverge from those required on IQ tests

33. Stereotype Threat and Self-Affirmation • Stereotype threat • Self-fulfilling prophecy • Anxiety and reduced test performance may result from knowledge about stereotypes concerning one’s ability • Self-affirmation: reminding the self of important values and why these are important (e.g., doing well in school) • shown to reduce stereotype threat and to improve performance in African Americans

34. VIDEO: Stereotype Threat

35. Interpreting Test Scores • Test scores show a child’s adaptation to a particularcultural context; this may notbe the child’s dominant culture • Most IQ tests predict success in schools with middle-class values • Children scoring poorly may lack the skills required to succeed in that environment • Intervention can improve those skills and, therefore, test scores • Individualsdiffer in IQ more than ethnic groups do • In allgroups, we find both very low and high IQ scores

36. 6.3 Special Children, Special Needs:Learning Objectives • What are the characteristics of gifted and creative children? • What are different forms of learning disability? • What are the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder?

37. Gifted and Creative Children Giftedness: traditionally defined as an IQ score of 130 or higher Giftedness today: exceptional talent in areas such as art, music, writing, or dance Exceptional talent’s prerequisites seem to be • child’s love for a subject and overwhelming desire to master it • receiving early instruction from inspiring and talented teachers • parental support, help, and commitment

38. Creativity Convergent thinking: using available information to find a standard, correct answer • Intelligence is often associated with convergent thinking Divergent thinking: thinking in novel and unusual directions to find many answers instead of a standard or correct answer • list all the ways a paper plate and a thumbtack can be used together • creativity is often linked to divergent thinking

39. Creativity (cont’d) Creativity is likelier when parents or schools • value nonconformity • encourage children’s curiosity • emphasize self-expression and exploration • inspire flexible thinking • stimulate exploration of alternatives

40. Children with Intellectual Disability Two diagnostic criteria for intellectual disability; both must emerge before 18 years of age • Substantial limitations in intellectual ability, defined as IQ score ≤ 70 • Problems adapting to the environment Intellectual disability is preferred to the older term mental retardation • Mental retardation implies a personal deficit • Intellectual disability conveys a poor fit between person’s capacities and those needed in a particular context, such as school

41. Children with Intellectual Disability (cont’d) Four risk factors • Biomedical (chromosomal, malnutrition, traumatic brain injury) • Social (poverty, poor parent-child relations) • Behavioral (child neglect, domestic violence) • Educational (poor parenting, poor services) Risk increases as more of these factors are present

42. Children with Learning Disabilities A child with a learning disability • has difficulty mastering an academic subject • is of normal intelligence • must not struggle due to some other condition (e.g., poor instruction, sensory deficits) Learning disabilities diagnosed in ± 5% of U.S. school-age children

43. Children with Learning Disabilities (cont’d) Three common learning disabilities are • Developmental dyslexia (aka reading disability) • Impaired reading comprehension • Developmental dyscalculia (aka mathematical disability)

44. Children with Learning Disabilities (cont’d) (1) Children with developmental dyslexia • struggle reading (decoding) individual words • have phonological awareness difficulties in both oral and written language • improve after phonological awareness training • benefit from explicit instruction about connections between letters and sounds Developmental dyslexia is the most common learning disability

45. Children with Learning Disabilities (cont’d) (2) Children with impaired reading comprehension • can read (decode) individual words • understand (comprehend) less of what they read • have a limited vocabulary • have difficulty linking a sentence’s words together to derive coherent meaning Training in vocabulary and other language skills improves reading comprehension, suggesting that this learning disability is a byproduct of impaired oral (spoken) language

46. Children with Learning Disabilities (cont’d) (3) Children with developmental dyscalculia • constitute 5-10% of young children • also may suffer from a reading disability • have difficulty learning to count, add, or subtract • as 3rd graders, still use fingers to count or add These children may be impaired in one or more of • arithmetic-related memory retrieval or counting skills • arithmetic-related cognitive processes (e.g., working memory, processing speed) • their number sense (e.g., quantities, comparisons)

47. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder • Characteristics include overactivity, inattention, and impulsivity • 3-5% of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD • Boys outnumber girls by 3:1 • No evidence ADHD is caused by TV, food allergies, sugar, or poor home life • Strong hereditary and biological components • Risk factors are exposure to alcohol or drugs

48. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (cont’d) • ADHD in childhood continues to manifest in 50% of adolescents and young adults • Few complete college and some have work- or family-related problems • ADHD is chronic and rarely misdiagnosed • However, it is underdiagnosed in African-American and Hispanic-American children • Effective treatments include continued • stimulant drugs, such as Ritalin • psychosocial interventions

49. 6.4 Academic Skills:Learning Objectives • What are the components of skilled reading? • As children develop, how does their writing improve? • How do arithmetic skills change during the elementary-school years? How do U.S. students compare to students from other countries? • What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers?

50. Reading • Components of reading • Word recognition — the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters • Comprehension— the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words