Location

1. Looking at Geography Through the Eyes of Hurricanes Mary D. Schubert Hamilton Prep – Chandler, AZ Introduction Location Curriculum Connection Movement • Hurricanes are one of the most destructive natural forces on earth. According to historical records from the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (2011), hurricanes have been responsible for thousands of deaths, injuries, and costly damages. • Fuhrmann et al. (2008) stated that the impact from hurricanes is increasing due to increasing population distribution in the hazardous zones. The worldwide population that lives near the coast is more than 3 billion. In the United States, about 150 million people live in coastal areas (Fuhrmann et al., 2008). Because of this, the need to understand the risks to humans and property from hurricanes has never been greater. • The five themes of geography can be used to study the effects of hurricanes. Fouberg, Blij, and Murphy (2009) explained that the five themes of geography were developed by the National Geographic Society in 1986, as a way to communicate the concepts of geography. • THE FIVE THEMES OF GEOGRAPHY • Location is the theme of geography that focuses on how the geographical location of people, places, and phenomena affects what happens in that location. Absolute location refers to a location’s latitude and longitude coordinates whereas, relative location is used to describe the location in relationship to other physical or cultural features (Fouberg, Blij, & Murphy, 2009). • Regnier (2008) cited that geographic differences between locations create differences for amount of time needed to evacuate. Cities that are located along the Gulf Coast are subjected to more uncertainty when it comes to hurricane track predictability than those along the Atlantic Coast, such as Miami. • “A populace that remains largely ignorant of fundamental geographic knowledge surely limits a nation's ability to perform and compete effectively on the global stage” (Gritzner, 2003 p. 90). Gritzner’s (2003) statement pointed out the importance of geographic knowledge. Yet, studies suggests that Americans are not acquiring geographic education from the educational system (National Geographic Education Foundation, 2006) This may be because “The United States is unique among these nations in relegating geography to a relatively minor role in both the elementary and secondary curriculum” (Gritzner, 2003 p. 90). Because of this, it is important to connect geographic concepts with the current curriculum. Hurricanes are a perfect topic to make this connection. While students learn about the effects of hurricanes, they will also learn about the physical and cultural geographic patterns of the world. • Several Performance Objectives that can be met by studying hurricanes • Describe the interactions between human populations, natural hazards, and the environment. • Describe the environmental effects of natural and/or human-caused hazards: flooding and extreme weather (Arizona Department of Education, 2010). • Analyzing push/pull factors that contribute to human migration • Analyzing the effects of migration on places of origin and destination. • Explain how societies and governments plan for and respond to natural disasters (e.g. evacuation routes, warning systems). • There are also several lesson activities by the American Association of Geographers and the American Red Cross. • Hurricane Impact: Storm surges and elevation transitions • Masters of Disaster: Hurricane science lesson plan 1/ Under pressure • Master of Disasters is Hurricane Preparation. • Movement is a critical element during a hurricane. Without proper roads, transportation, and communication, emergency personnel may not be able to respond to people in need and people may not be able to evacuate. To investigate the influence that movement might have had on the impact of Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans’, evacuation plan was examined. Nigg et al. (2006) stated that the plan complied with the state’s emergency response plan; however, transportation for the evacuation was limited to personal vehicles. According to the survey by Brodie et al. (2006), this approach proved to be insufficient for a number of people. Lack of transportation was cited as the reason by more than 34% of the people for not evacuating (Brodie et al., 2006). • The migration from Hurricane Katrina was the largest displacement of people within the United States since the 1930’s Dust Bowl migration from the plains to California (Nigg et al., 2006). Further significance was that the migration of 1.2 million people along the Gulf Coast took place within only a few days (Nigg et al., 2006) • Kates et al (2006) suggested that New Orleans’ relative location was a key factor that influenced the impact from Hurricane Katrina. Three bodies of water, the Gulf of Mexico, Lake Pontchartrain and the Mississippi River, border New Orleans. Kates et al. (2006) explained that New Orleans’ relative location made New Orleans especially vulnerable to the flooding that was responsible for the loss of over 1800 people (NOAA, 2011). Conclusions Place • When using the five themes of geography to study the effects of hurricanes the importance of geography becomes apparent. The Gulf Coast, Caribbean, and Central American create region based upon the similar trait of being a hurricane prone area . However, it was the differences, not the similarities that stood out when examining the effects of hurricanes with the remaining four themes of geography. • How hurricanes affect people and places depends upon the location. The same hurricane may have had a different effect in a different location. • Differences in places’ cultural characteristics create differences in the effect that hurricanes have on places. A place’s cultural characteristics can affect evacuation decisions. In addition, the extent to which a hurricane affects the cultural landscape may depend upon the amount of damage and rebuilding. Elevation is a physical characteristic of place that has influenced the impact of hurricanes on people and ecosystems. • The effect to people and places by hurricanes also depends upon the movement of ideas and people. Demographic changes caused from hurricane-induced migration can change the cultural character of the place. • How hurricanes affect people and places can also depend upon the different types of human-environment interactions that have occurred in the region. This may increase the amount of deaths caused by the hurricane. • Hurricanes have affected the lives of thousands of people living in coastal regions. As the world’s coastal population increases so does the need to understand the effects of hurricanes and geographic knowledge is the key to this understanding. • When a mandatory evacuation is given, people who do not leave may be in great danger of death or injury (Nigg, 2006). However, a place’s cultural characteristics, such as length of residency, economic status, and health status of its citizens can influence if the people evacuate. • The degree to which people and places are affected by movement often depends upon the demographics of the people moving out of the area as well as the people who are moving into the affected area (Smith, 2008; Drever, 2008; Groen, 2008). • After Hurricane Katrina, a high number of African Americans migrated out of the region. New employment opportunities, created by the need to rebuild, brought in Latinos from Central America. This exchange in ethnic populations can affect a place’s cultural landscape (Drever, 2008). • Therefore, a place that has a larger number of citizens with these characteristics may experience a higher number of deaths and injury from hurricanes due to an increased number of people who do not evacuate (Brodie et al., 2006; Zeigler et al., 1996). • Region • The geographic theme of region focuses on identifying spaces that have similar features. Fouberg et al.(2009) stated that geographers create regions to organize and understand Earth’s complex nature. Geographers group areas together that are based upon shared criteria in order to study them. • The type of region geographers create is dependent upon the feature that is being studied. The criteria used to create regions for study can be based upon a single feature or multiple features. • In a formal region the feature that is being measured can be found throughout the entire region. Cultural features that can be used to create a formal region may include language, religion, ethnicity, or political boundaries. Features used to create a formal region can also be physical characteristics, such as climate, landforms, soil, vegetation, or a distinct border (Fouberg, Blij, & Murphy, 2009). • One formal region is the Gulf Coast in North America. The Gulf Coast includes the coastal areas of the southern US states that border the Gulf of Mexico (NOAA, 2011). • The Gulf Coast, Caribbean, and Central American create a formal region based upon the similar trait of being a hurricane prone area (NOAA, 2011). • Each year the people who live in hurricane prone regions share the process of preparing for the possibility of a hurricane. Human-Environment Interaction • Kates, et al. (2006) noted that the building of the levees in New Orleans created a situation that ultimately placed more people in danger. The people of New Orleans modified their environment by building levees. They built the levees in response to frequent floods and hurricanes they experienced. Consequently, the installations of levees lead to a safer environment in which to increase building and development. More development in the area, in turn, brought in more people. This put a higher number of people at risk, when the levee breached (Kates et al., 2006). • Elevation is a physical characteristic of place that has influenced the impact of hurricanes on people. People living in the lowest elevation can be subjected to more flooding (Kates et al., 2006). • The extent to which a hurricane affects the cultural landscape may depend upon the amount of damage and rebuilding. In rebuilding, some structures have been elevated on piers, reflecting the hazards of flooding in the cultural landscape. Key References Brodie, M., Weltzien, E., Altman, D., Blendon, R., & Benson, J. (2006). Experiences of Hurricane Katrina evacuees in Houston shelters: Implications for future planning. American Journal of Public Health, 96(8), 1402-1408. Brokaw, N. V., & Grear, J. S. (1991). Forest structure before and after Hurricane Hugo at three elevations in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. Biotropica, 23(4), 386-392. Covich, A., Crowl, T., Johnson, S. L., Varza, D., & Certain, D. L. (1991). Post-hurricane Hugo increase in Atyid Shrimp abundances in a Puerto Rican montaine stream. Biotropica, 23(4), 448-454. Drever, A. I. (2008). New Orleans: A re-emerging Latino destination city. Journal of Cultural Geography, 25(3), 287-303. Fouberg, E. H., Blij, H. J., & Murphy, A. B. (2009). Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture (9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley. Fuhrmann, S., Stone, L. D., Casey, M. C., Curtis, M. D., Doyle, A., Earle, B. D., et al. (2008). Teaching disaster preparedness in geographic education. Journal of Geography, 107(3), 112-120. Gritzner, C. (2003). Why geography. Journal of Geography, 102, 90-91. Kates, R. W., Colten, C. E., Laska, S., & Leatherman, S. P. (2006). Reconstruction of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina A research perspective. PNAS, 103(40), 14653-14660. Marston, S. A., Knox, P. L., & Liverman, D. M. (2002). World Regions in Global Context. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. (2011). Hurricane History. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from Hurricane Preparedness: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/history.shtm Nigg, J., Barnshaw, J., & Torres, M. R. (2006). Hurricane Katrina and the flooding of New Orleans: emergent issues in sheltering and temporary housing. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science(604), 113-126. Regnier, E. (2008). Public evacuation decisions and hurricane track uncertainty. Management Science, 54(1), 16-28. • Elevation can also influence how hurricanes affect ecosystems (Tanner, 1991). However, this effect can vary depending upon species. Studies in Puerto Rico, following Hurricane Hugo indicated that sometimes species that are located at a high elevation benefit and thrive, such as evergreen trees (Brokaw, 1991). • However, sometimes lower elevations are the best place for a species survives. The Atyrid Shrimp population , increased at a lower elevation (Covich et al., 1991). • Human environment modification influenced the impact from Hurricane Mitch, which struck Honduras in October of 1998. Another way people modify their environment is by clearing the land of vegetation.. Marston, et al. (2002) claimed that the deforested slopes of the hills increased the flooding and mudslides that were responsible for the deaths of more than 9000 people.