1. Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794-1858): Note the military uniform--the Japanese military would soon begin to adopt similar Western-style uniforms for the military and ranking officials (pro and anti Meiji alike). Background: Perry directed the Gulf squadron during the Mexican War of 1846-1847. In 1853, he was sent to Japan on a mission to open the country from its two and a half century of isolation. Commodore Perry and his fleet of four Black Ships penetrated the fortified harbour of Uraga, taking no care of directions to go to Nagasaki. He presented the Tokugawa authorities with a letter from president Fillmore addressed to the Japanese emperor, and refused to deal with minor officials. Forcing the government to listen to his proposal, he said he would come back seven months later to hear the answer. At his return, he took no less than 11 ships to assure the signature of the treaty, which would permit the US to buy coal in Japan and trade in the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. Perry effectively ended Japan's self-infliced isolation, as France, Britain, Russia and the Netherlands soon negotiated similar treaties with Japan, opening up 8 ports to foreign trade. They were known as the unequal treaties, in which Japan had to give up tariff autonomy and legal juridiction (such as extraterritoriality) in the treaties' ports.Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794-1858): Note the military uniform--the Japanese military would soon begin to adopt similar Western-style uniforms for the military and ranking officials (pro and anti Meiji alike). Background: Perry directed the Gulf squadron during the Mexican War of 1846-1847. In 1853, he was sent to Japan on a mission to open the country from its two and a half century of isolation. Commodore Perry and his fleet of four Black Ships penetrated the fortified harbour of Uraga, taking no care of directions to go to Nagasaki. He presented the Tokugawa authorities with a letter from president Fillmore addressed to the Japanese emperor, and refused to deal with minor officials. Forcing the government to listen to his proposal, he said he would come back seven months later to hear the answer. At his return, he took no less than 11 ships to assure the signature of the treaty, which would permit the US to buy coal in Japan and trade in the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate. Perry effectively ended Japan's self-infliced isolation, as France, Britain, Russia and the Netherlands soon negotiated similar treaties with Japan, opening up 8 ports to foreign trade. They were known as the unequal treaties, in which Japan had to give up tariff autonomy and legal juridiction (such as extraterritoriality) in the treaties' ports.

2. Japanese ambassadors to the United States, 1860. Photographer unknown. (From Guth)Japanese ambassadors to the United States, 1860. Photographer unknown. (From Guth)

3. �Reception of the Japanese Ambassadors by the President at the White House, May 17, 1860,� from Harper�s Weekly, May 26, 1860. (From Guth)�Reception of the Japanese Ambassadors by the President at the White House, May 17, 1860,� from Harper�s Weekly, May 26, 1860. (From Guth)

4. Enomoto Takeaki (1836-1908) was a Japanese politician who fought against the new Meiji government, declaring Hokkaido (Ezo) as an independent nation. After studying abroad in the Netherlands, he was promoted to Kaigun Fukusosai, the second highest rank in the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy, established in 1860s. In 1868, when the Meiji government occupied Edo, he refused to deliver warships to the government, and escaped to Hakodate with the fleet. They hope to found a state reigned by Tokugawa family in Hokkaido, but the Meiji government refused their request. In 25 December, they declared foundation of the Republic of Hokkaido (Ezo Kyowakoku), and elected Enomoto as resident. The next year, the Meiji Governmental Army and Navy invaded Hokkaido and defeated the former Shogunate Army and Navy of the Republic. 18 May 1869 the Republic gave in, and Hokkaido accepted the Meiji Emperor's rule. Enomoto was allowed the crime in 1872 and appointed as the government official of the Hokkaido agency. In 1874, he was promoted to Vice Admiral of the newly established Imperial Japanese Navy, and dispatched to Russia as Minister Plenipotentiary. He successively held the high position of government, until he died.�Enomoto Takeaki (1836-1908) was a Japanese politician who fought against the new Meiji government, declaring Hokkaido (Ezo) as an independent nation. After studying abroad in the Netherlands, he was promoted to Kaigun Fukusosai, the second highest rank in the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy, established in 1860s. In 1868, when the Meiji government occupied Edo, he refused to deliver warships to the government, and escaped to Hakodate with the fleet. They hope to found a state reigned by Tokugawa family in Hokkaido, but the Meiji government refused their request. In 25 December, they declared foundation of the Republic of Hokkaido (Ezo Kyowakoku), and elected Enomoto as resident. The next year, the Meiji Governmental Army and Navy invaded Hokkaido and defeated the former Shogunate Army and Navy of the Republic. 18 May 1869 the Republic gave in, and Hokkaido accepted the Meiji Emperor's rule. Enomoto was allowed the crime in 1872 and appointed as the government official of the Hokkaido agency. In 1874, he was promoted to Vice Admiral of the newly established Imperial Japanese Navy, and dispatched to Russia as Minister Plenipotentiary. He successively held the high position of government, until he died.�

5. Nogi Maresuke (1849�1912) Japanese general. Made a lieutenant general in 1895, he became governor-general of Taiwan. He was the hero of the capture of Port Arthur in the Russo-Japanese War and was honored as a model of loyalty when he committed hara-kiri to follow the Meiji emperor into death.Nogi Maresuke (1849�1912) Japanese general. Made a lieutenant general in 1895, he became governor-general of Taiwan. He was the hero of the capture of Port Arthur in the Russo-Japanese War and was honored as a model of loyalty when he committed hara-kiri to follow the Meiji emperor into death.

6. Saigo Takamori (1828-77) One of the most illustrious sons of Kagoshima, Saigo Takamori was one of the Satsuma samurais who supported the Meiji Restoration. Saigo was an early opponent to the Tokugawa regime. He was exiled from 1859 to 1864, then returned to train Satsuma warriors. He became advisor to the new Meiji emperor and rejected the Westernization of Japan. In 1873, while many senior statesmen like Ito,Okubo or Kido were abroad on the Iwakura Mission, Saigo pressed the government to invade Korea, so as to punish it for not opening relations with the new Meiji government. When the Iwakura Mission returned to Japan in September 1873, Saigo's plan was overturned. He retired from the government with a group of dissident and went back to Kagoshima. He soon gathered supporters among disenchanted samurai and those having bad feeling against the government. Although clad in kimono in the film (The Last Emperor) and in an even more informal summer yukata in his famous statue, Saigo always wore, even in rebellion, an Imperial Army uniform, and identified himself with the new institutional structures he had helped create. Left: A famous statue of Saigo Takamori which depicts him walking his dog, stands in Tokyo's Ueno Park Right: Another statue of him in military uniform stands in Kagoshima's Central Park (Chuo Koen). Saigo Takamori (1828-77) One of the most illustrious sons of Kagoshima, Saigo Takamori was one of the Satsuma samurais who supported the Meiji Restoration. Saigo was an early opponent to the Tokugawa regime. He was exiled from 1859 to 1864, then returned to train Satsuma warriors. He became advisor to the new Meiji emperor and rejected the Westernization of Japan. In 1873, while many senior statesmen like Ito,Okubo or Kido were abroad on the Iwakura Mission, Saigo pressed the government to invade Korea, so as to punish it for not opening relations with the new Meiji government. When the Iwakura Mission returned to Japan in September 1873, Saigo's plan was overturned. He retired from the government with a group of dissident and went back to Kagoshima. He soon gathered supporters among disenchanted samurai and those having bad feeling against the government. Although clad in kimono in the film (The Last Emperor) and in an even more informal summer yukata in his famous statue, Saigo always wore, even in rebellion, an Imperial Army uniform, and identified himself with the new institutional structures he had helped create. Left: A famous statue of Saigo Takamori which depicts him walking his dog, stands in Tokyo's Ueno Park Right: Another statue of him in military uniform stands in Kagoshima's Central Park (Chuo Koen).

7. The Last Samurai (2003). Director Ed Zwick based his �last samurai� Katsumoto (played by Ken Watanabe) on Saigo Takamori, a founding oligarch of the Meiji restorations, who rebelled in 1877. Romantic Rebel myth: The vast majority of samurai did not rebel, and it has long been noted how ready most samurai were to relinquish their privileges (and obligations). Saigo�s disillusionment with the clan-clique (hanbatsu) government was rooted in an earlier (1873) inter-elite policy dispute, specifically in the rejection of his call for an invasion of Korea. His rebellion capped a series of samurai revolts (1874-77) that expressed ferocious opposition to specific government policies and, more generally, to the rapid restructuring and centralization of state authority, but they were not an attempt to return to status quo ante. The Last Samurai (2003). Director Ed Zwick based his �last samurai� Katsumoto (played by Ken Watanabe) on Saigo Takamori, a founding oligarch of the Meiji restorations, who rebelled in 1877. Romantic Rebel myth: The vast majority of samurai did not rebel, and it has long been noted how ready most samurai were to relinquish their privileges (and obligations). Saigo�s disillusionment with the clan-clique (hanbatsu) government was rooted in an earlier (1873) inter-elite policy dispute, specifically in the rejection of his call for an invasion of Korea. His rebellion capped a series of samurai revolts (1874-77) that expressed ferocious opposition to specific government policies and, more generally, to the rapid restructuring and centralization of state authority, but they were not an attempt to return to status quo ante.

8. The Last Samurai (2003). Director Ed Zwick based his �last samurai� Katsumoto (played by Ken Watanabe) on Saigo Takamori, a founding oligarch of the Meiji restorations, who rebelled in 1877. Romantic Rebel myth (cont.): In defeat, Saigo committed seppuku (ritual suicide), but he was posthumously rehabilitated and memorialized in a prominent statue in Tokyo�s Ueno Park. Although clad in kimono (or traditional samurai armor) in the film and in an even more informal summer yukata in his famous statue, Saigo always wore, even in rebellion, an Imperial Army uniform, and identified himself with the new institutional structures he had helped create. The uniforms of the Japanese Imperial Army resembled those of the French Garde Mobile in appearance. Japanese infantrymen wore a dark blue kepi, a short jacket with French style field pack, and dark blue pants (in summer, the uniform was white). They were armed with breech-loading Snider rifles and could fire approximately six rounds per minute.The Last Samurai (2003). Director Ed Zwick based his �last samurai� Katsumoto (played by Ken Watanabe) on Saigo Takamori, a founding oligarch of the Meiji restorations, who rebelled in 1877. Romantic Rebel myth (cont.): In defeat, Saigo committed seppuku (ritual suicide), but he was posthumously rehabilitated and memorialized in a prominent statue in Tokyo�s Ueno Park. Although clad in kimono (or traditional samurai armor) in the film and in an even more informal summer yukata in his famous statue, Saigo always wore, even in rebellion, an Imperial Army uniform, and identified himself with the new institutional structures he had helped create. The uniforms of the Japanese Imperial Army resembled those of the French Garde Mobile in appearance. Japanese infantrymen wore a dark blue kepi, a short jacket with French style field pack, and dark blue pants (in summer, the uniform was white). They were armed with breech-loading Snider rifles and could fire approximately six rounds per minute.

9. Saigo Takamori in a Kabuki Play, by Kunichika Toyohara, 1894. Note the imperial army uniform in depiction of Saigo on the bottom.Saigo Takamori in a Kabuki Play, by Kunichika Toyohara, 1894. Note the imperial army uniform in depiction of Saigo on the bottom.

10. The Last Samurai (2003). Unlike Katsumoto's samurai , who fight with nothing but bows and arrows, spears and swords and look like they belong into a classic samurai movie, set in the 16th century , Saigo's army was equipped with relatively modern arms and seriously challenged the imperial army for several months. The Last Samurai (2003). Unlike Katsumoto's samurai , who fight with nothing but bows and arrows, spears and swords and look like they belong into a classic samurai movie, set in the 16th century , Saigo's army was equipped with relatively modern arms and seriously challenged the imperial army for several months.

11. Godai Tomoatsu (center), a samurai who believed that in order to strengthen itself against Western powers Japan had to become more integrated in international economics, photographed during a secret study trip to London in 1895 with his interpreter (left) and British escort (right). Note his adoption of Western dress and hairstyle. (Photograph taken from Japan Encounters the Barbarian: Japanese Travellers in America and Europe, W.G. Beasley.)Godai Tomoatsu (center), a samurai who believed that in order to strengthen itself against Western powers Japan had to become more integrated in international economics, photographed during a secret study trip to London in 1895 with his interpreter (left) and British escort (right). Note his adoption of Western dress and hairstyle. (Photograph taken from Japan Encounters the Barbarian: Japanese Travellers in America and Europe, W.G. Beasley.)

12. The Western Suit become the Japanese Suit (c. 1990). Ad copy analyzed in Dorrine Kondo�s essay �Fabricating Masculinity: Gender, Race, and Nation in the Transnational Circuit� (1997). Ad appeared in equivalent of The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, and Fortune (e.g. Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Nikkei Business). Also in Katei Gaho, a large-format glossy women�s magazine that represents the epitome of upscale feminine respectability). The Western Suit become the Japanese Suit (c. 1990). Ad copy analyzed in Dorrine Kondo�s essay �Fabricating Masculinity: Gender, Race, and Nation in the Transnational Circuit� (1997). Ad appeared in equivalent of The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, and Fortune (e.g. Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Nikkei Business). Also in Katei Gaho, a large-format glossy women�s magazine that represents the epitome of upscale feminine respectability).