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RESEARCH WRITING STRUCTURE & STYLE

RESEARCH WRITING STRUCTURE & STYLE. Vivek Patkar vnpatkar2004@yahoo.co.in. Research Process. S-8. Disseminate the Results. S-7. Prepare the Research Report. S-6. Writing: S-4 S-7 S-8. Analyse, Interpret Data & Validate. S-5. Gather the Data. Approval. S-4.

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RESEARCH WRITING STRUCTURE & STYLE

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  1. RESEARCH WRITING STRUCTURE & STYLE Vivek Patkar vnpatkar2004@yahoo.co.in

  2. Research Process S-8 Disseminate the Results S-7 Prepare the Research Report S-6 Writing: S-4 S-7 S-8 Analyse, Interpret Data & Validate S-5 Gather the Data Approval S-4 Prepare a Research Plan Research Proposal S-3 Select the Research Strategy S-2 Establish Research Questions Preliminary Research Activities S-1 Identify the Research Problem

  3. Presentation Plan • Research Proposal Writing • Academic Thesis Structure • Writing Guidelines • Bibliographic Styles • Research Paper Writing • Publication Process • Good Research

  4. Research Proposal Purpose • A research proposal is an argument that explains the logic of the study to an audience of non-experts. • An explanation refers to the justification of the research. • A proposal refers to the subject matter of the study. • Term non-experts refers to readers who may not be knowledgeable in the specific area of the proposed study. Three functions:intention, specificity, and adequacy of methods

  5. Research Proposal Features • It shows how does the proposed research study has considered the available knowledge through literature and is informed by it • Viability and relevance of research is justified • Strengths and limitations of the approach are clearly stated • All the ethical issues are weighed up • Shows that fair amount of original findings are expected at the end of the research - A research proposal be around 8000 words in length - A pilot study-based research proposal is most welcome

  6. Elements of Research Proposal Summary & Contents Research Design Schedule Facilities Problem Statement Data Analysis Study Management Research Objectives Form of Results Bibliography Literature Review Personnel & Internal Resources Appendices Importance of Study Special Requirements Budget Notes: 1) Activities listed in the red are considered essential. 2) Activities listed in the greenare necessary for funding submission. 3) Title of the Ph.D. Thesis is usually frozen on proposal approval.

  7. Literature Review Purpose: • Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done • Discovering important variables relevant to the topic • Synthesisingand gaining a new perspective • Identifying relationship between ideas and practices • Establishing the context of the topic or problem • Rationalisingthe significance of the problem • Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used

  8. Model for a Proposal • Introduction • Research Problem (a) Existing literature, (b) Gaps in the existing research • Purpose of the Study • Research Questions • Methods and Procedures (a) Available methods & justification for the chosen one (b) Research strategy (c) Research design – sample size & selection procedure (d) Methods of data collection (e) Methods of data analysis and quality issues

  9. Model for a Proposal (2) • Ethical Issues • Expected Results • Significance, relevance and practical implications of the study • Chapter scheme • Preliminary pilot findings, earlier research • Timeline or schedule • Proposed budget • A preliminary list of references

  10. A Study Schedule Duration Activity 2 Months 2 Months 2 Months 2 Months 2 Months Topic Selection Literature Search Research Proposal Literature Review Data Collection Data Analysis Interpretation & Validation Report Writing

  11. General Guidelines • Try to make the design of the study and methods as explicit, clear and detailed as possible • Research questions and corresponding hypotheses should be well articulated with suitable description • Implications of the research should be placed in their academic and practical contexts • Ethical precautions and procedures should be well discussed

  12. Academic Thesis • Title or Cover Page - Title: suitably framed in 12 to16 words avoiding a word repetition {in upper case} [include technique or concept or any significant feature to highlight specific contribution] - Author, Month & Year, Dept. & University • Preliminary Pages - Certificates as per the Rules [follow the prescribed format] - Acknowledgements: be selective, do not talk about errors

  13. Preliminary Pages • Table of Contents - Chapter Number and Title… Page No. - Section Headings - “ - - Sub-Section Headings - “ - - References - “ - - Appendices/Annexures - “ - • List of Tables (with No.& Caption) - “ - • List of Figures/Cases/Statutes - “ - (with No. & Caption)

  14. Preliminary Pages • Glossary of Terms - Definitions - Acronyms • Summary of Thesis - Contents of each Chapter in brief [Write it precisely as that is read first by the examiner to form the basic impression] Optional

  15. Thesis Structure • Chapter 1: Introduction - Subject background - Thesis topic background - Motivation for selecting the topic/problem - Broad definition of the problem • Chapter 2: Literature Review - Organised according to either authors or geography or chronology or variables [Give your critical evaluation to show the state of the knowledge, the gaps and direction you would take]

  16. Thesis Structure • Chapter 3: Scope of Work - Problem statement (precise definition) - Sub-Divisions of the problem - Corresponding hypothesis formulation (if applicable) • Chapter 4: Methodology - Possible approaches - Justification for the selected approach - Operational aspects of the approach

  17. Thesis Structure • Chapter 5: Data Collection - Sampling frame (relevant universe) - Sampling procedure (sample selection) - Outline of instruments used (questionnaire, interview schedule) • Chapter 6: Analysis - Salient features of analytical tools used - Main Tables & Figures [exhaust all the data] - Results validation

  18. Thesis Structure • Chapter 7: Discussion of Results - Critical interpretation of the results - Linking the results to the sub-problems - Implications for the main problem • Chapter 8: Conclusions - How the purpose of the study is addressed - Limitations - Areas for further research

  19. Thesis Structure • References - All the quoted works to be listed - Use standard style (like APA or prescribed) - General works be given separately as Bibliography, if large in number - Follow prescribed style for citing the web-based works [Use original works, latest works and do not miss any important work – Examiners are particular about these aspects]

  20. Thesis Structure • Appendices/Annexures (one for each aspect) - Full questionnaire/interview schedule - Secondary Tables/Figures/Maps - Other supporting documents like newspaper clippings, brochures & leaflets - Technical notes about methodology - Any other information that may have some bearing on the work reported

  21. Writing Guidelines • Use “we” instead of “I” (or author/writer/researcher) • Avoid the use of superlatives • Use mix of active and passive sentences • Be exact; avoid the use of the words like “etc.”, “about 35….” and “nearly…” • Keep the sentences short • Use “&” only occasionally

  22. Writing Guidelines(2) • Describe the methodology and fieldwork in the past tense • Use the present tense for describing your analysis and conclusions • Do not use slang or jargon form of expression, unless justified • Do not present same information in text, table and picture form • Remember accuracy is more important than artistry in the research writing

  23. Writing Guidelines(3) • Ensure that any new term or concept is defined before it is used • All statements must be backed by relevant data and evidence/reference • Follow one idea, one paragraph approach to make proper impact • Use graphics selectively to enhance the presentation quality Written communication is completewhen it is:Reached, Read, Understood, Appreciated and Acted Upon

  24. Writing Guidelines(4) • Divide the matter in sub-sections and give them suitable captions for clarity • Writing flow must have a logical progression of ideas • Ensure proper linkage between paragraphs, sections and chapters • Avoid repetitive citing of the same reference/s (restrict it to say, three or four times)

  25. Writing Guidelines(5) • ReferDictionaryfor correct spelling and check punctuation and grammar(American or British English spellings?) • UseThesaurusto improve the writing (….and their conversation was noted. Alternatively,… and the interaction between them was noted) • Use standard style manuals for citing the reference in the text and listing the references in research writing • Never do copy-pasting of the Internet downloads Dictionary and Thesaurus are usually available in English word processing software.

  26. Writing Guidelines(6) Format: • Organise the matter according to the prescribed structure (it is different for a thesis, journal article, popular magazine, newspaper and website) • Provide Footnotes or Endnotes in numerical order to facilitate reading and linking to relevant references • Put secondary material in the Appendix

  27. Style for Table Table 6.5 Change in occupation pattern over 1961-2001 period in ABCD District (in 000’s) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sr. Year Farming Fishing Mining Industry Finance Services No. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- • (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1961 250 132 56 167 32 143 2 1971 175 54 32* 324 76 300 3 1981 ….. ….. …. ….. ….. ….. . …. …… ….. …… …… ……. …… ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * Estimated Source: Census of India Documents for various years

  28. Style for Figure POVERTY LINE 100 90 %HH Urban 80 70 %HH Rural 60 Cumulative % 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 500 750 1000 1500 2500 5000 6000 Monthly Income in Rs. Figure 6.3: Household Income in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (1991)

  29. Bibliographic Style Several style manuals are available and they generally group the sources in the below given categories: 1) books 2) periodicals (e.g. journals, magazines) 3) miscellaneous (e.g. reports, brochures) 4) electronic resources (e.g. web sites, blogs)

  30. Major Bibliographical Styles • American Psychology Association (APA)[visit www.apastyle.org] • Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago Style)[visit www.chicagomanualofstyle.org] • Modern Language Association of America (MLA)[visit www.mla.org/style] • Harvard Law Review Association, The Bluebook: Uniform System of Citation • Disciplines like physics, computer science and environment & earth sciences have prescribed their own style manuals

  31. Books • Berg, B. (2001). Qualitative research for the social sciences. London: Allyn & Bacon. • Berg, B., Qualitative Research for the Social Sciences, London, Allyn & Bacon, 2001. [include subtitle, if it is present] • Berg, Benjamin. Qualitative Research for the Social Sciences. London: Allyn & Bacon, 2001. [only for university press use: Mumbai UP] APA Chicago MLA

  32. Journals • Patkar, V.N. & Sampathkumar, D. (1993). A GIS support to water distribution, planning and management. Journal of Indian Water Works Association, 25(1), 141‑147. • Patkar, V.N. & Sampathkumar, D., A GIS Support to Water Distribution, Planning and Management, Journal of Indian Water Works Association, 25(1), 1993, pp. 141‑147. • Patkar, Vivek N. & D. Sampathkumar, “A GIS Support to Water Distribution, Planning and Management.” Journal of Indian Water Works Association, Vol. 25, No.1,(January 1993): 141‑147. APA Chicago MLA

  33. Miscellaneous Items • Patkar, V. (2010). Information and communication technology age: a perspective. Mumbai: Centre for International, Strategic and Development Studies. CISDS Publication – 4. • Patkar, V.,Information and Communication Technology Age: A Perspective, Mumbai, Centre for International, Strategic and Development Studies (CISDS), March 2010, CISDS Publication – 4. • Patkar, Vivek.Information and Communication Technology Age: A Perspective. Mumbai: Centre for International, Strategic and Development Studies, March 2010. (CISDS Publication – 4) APA Chicago MLA

  34. Electronic Resources • The British Library. (2005). Measuring our value. London: The British Library. Accessed on July 30, 2008 from http://www.bl.uk/pdf/measuring.pdf • The British Library. Measuring Our Value, 2005. London: The British Library. http://www.bl.uk/pdf/measuring.pdf. accessed on 30th July 2008. • The British Library. Measuring Our Value. 2005. http://www.bl.uk/pdf/measuring.pdf. 30 July 2008. An exclusive Webibliography could be given in case web references are exceeding say 15. APA Chicago MLA

  35. Bibliography in Legal Res. Report Bibliography should contain three sections: • Table of Cases : judicial decisions listed by country or international jurisdiction in alphabetical order • Table of Laws: judicial decisions listed by country or international jurisdiction in alphabetical order • Books,Periodicals & Bibliographic Material: alphabetically according to the name of the author or editor or according to the title

  36. Sample References Table of Cases - Ethiopia • BeleteBelaineh V. Public Prosecutor (Sup. Imp. Ct., 1962), J.Eth.L., vol.1,p.162 • H.V.A. Ethiopia V. The Inland Revenue Department (High ct., Addis Ababa, 1962), J.th.L., vol.2, p.66. - France • Brionnet (conseil d'Etat Dec 21, 1960) Dalloz, 1961, Jurisp., p. 391. - Nigeria • Akinwande Thomas v. obaAlalyeiuwaAdemoia it (Su. Ct., 1945), Neria L. Rep Vol 18, p12.

  37. Sample References Table of Laws - England • Income Tax Act, 1952, Halsbury's Statutes of England (2d ed.) Vol. 31, as amended, Finance Act, 1953 vol. 33, p. 114 and, Finance Act,1960, vol. 40, p. 423. - Ethiopia • Law of companies of 1933 (unpublished, Archives, Faculty of Law, Addis Ababa University). - France • Decree No. 56-83 of Nov. 15, 1950 Dalloz, 1956, legis., p. 490.

  38. Sample References (2) Books • Jones, W.T. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1952.[single author] • Bushnell, David, and Neill Macaulay. The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century. Second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. [joint authors] • The Men's League Handbook on Women's Suffrage. London, 1912. [no author] • Anderson, J.N.D., ed. The World's Religions. London: Inter-Varsity Fellowship, 1950. [edited work] • Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. 3 vols. New York: Vintage Books, 1986. [multivolumeswork]

  39. Sample References (3) Periodicals & Others • LaFeber, Walter. "The World and the United States." American Historical Review. Vol. 100, No. 4 (October 1995), pp. 1015-1033. [journal paper] • Das, TarunS. "Suburban Railway Crime on the Increase." The Times of India, Mumbai. May 3, 2011. [newspaper article] • Interviews with three Supreme Court Judges, Nov. 6-8, 2007. Note: All the entries in the Bibliography are to be arranged alphabetically

  40. Shortcuts in References • IBID Short for the Latin "Ibidem", meaning "The same". Refers to the same author and source (e.g. book, journal) as the immediately preceding reference. • Example: 1. Sane, B. (1993), Learning History, New York: Academic Press, p. 7. 2. Ibid. or (ibid, p.19 or id., p.19). 3. Roy, J. (2000), Indian History, Mumbai: Top Press, p. 141. 4. Bokil, Y. (1987),” Managing Logistics for Army”, Indian Journal of History, 20(3), pp.154-57. 5. Roy, op. cit., p. 235.

  41. Shortcuts in References (2) • OP. CIT. Short for the Latin "opus citatum", meaning “in the work cited". Used to refer to an earlier citation. • Example: 1. Sane, B. (1993), Learning History, New York: Academic Press, p. 7. 2. Ibid. or (ibid, p.19 or id., p.19).. 3. Roy, J. (2000), Indian History, Mumbai: Top Press, p. 141. 4. Bokil, Y. (1987),” Managing Logistics for Army”, Indian Journal of Military History, 20(3), pp.154-64. 5. Roy, op. cit., p. 235.

  42. Word Distribution* • Introduction 5% • Theory and Literature Review 30% • Method of Data Collection 15% • Data (Case Study) Description 20% • Analysis and Discussion 20% • Conclusions & Implications 10% * This is only suggestive in nature; excluding TOC, Preliminary pages and References. A Social Science Ph. D. Thesis comprising 350 pages is considered ideal.

  43. Sentence Structure • Ease in reading a sentence: - Up to 8 words — Very easy (90%) - 11 words — Fairly easy (75%) - 17 words — Standard (40%) - 21 words — Fairly difficult (24%) - 25 words — Difficult (14%) - 29 words and more — Very difficult (4.5%) • Use gender neutral words (like chairperson instead of chairman)

  44. Writing Style Evaluation • The Fog Index helps in analyzing written material to see how easy it is to read and understand. • Fog Index computation: - Let the number of words in the sample be = 109 - Let the number of sentences be = 6 - Let the number of big words (6 or more letters) be = 8 - Average sentence length = 109/6 = 18 - Percentage of big words = 8/109 = 7% - Average sentence length + % of big words = 18 +7= 25 Fog Index = 25 x .4 = 10.0 • The "ideal" Fog Index level is 7 or 8. A level above 12 indicates the writing sample is too hard for most people to comprehend (e.g. legal documents).

  45. Writing Style Evaluation (2) Flesch Reading Ease score: (readability statistics under Tools or Spelling Options in MS Word software) • Rates text on a 100-point scale; the higher the score, the easier it is to understand the document. For most standard documents, aim for a score between 60 & 70. • The formula for the Flesch Reading Ease score is: 206.835 – (1.015 x ASL) – (84.6 x ASW) where, • ASL = average sentence length (the number of words divided by the number of sentences) • ASW = average number of syllables per word (the number of syllables divided by the number of words)

  46. Writing Style Evaluation (3) Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level score:(readability statistics under Tools or Spelling option in MS Word) • Rates text on a U.S. school grade level. For example, a score of 8.0 means that an eighth grader can understand the document. For most documents, aim for a score of approximately 7.0 to 8.0. • The formula for the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level score is: (.39 x ASL) + (11.8 x ASW) – 15.59, where, • ASL = average sentence length (the number of words divided by the number of sentences) • ASW = average number of syllables per word (the number of syllables divided by the number of words)

  47. Quality of Presentation • Writing of the academic thesis or research report must be clear and crisp. • Logical flow among the chapters and sections needs to be ensured. • A good balance between the text, tables, charts and other graphics is maintained. - Do not use words in ALLCAPITAL, Bold, Italicsor Underlined form excessively. - Never write a paragraph or your e-mail in ALL CAPITALS (It is considered as shouting – against net-etiquettes).

  48. Thesis Completeness • All objectives are properly addressed and specific conclusions are drawn with consistent presentation • Claims of generalisation are well supported • Due credit to all the previous works is given by inclusion in References/Bibliography • Sufficient procedural information is given to enable others to replicate the study(data sources, sampling plan, survey instruments and methods for analysis are given in all details) • Repetition is avoided • Limitations of the study are clearly stated

  49. Thesis Defence • Viva-Voce - Prepare a PowerPoint presentation independently i.e. avoid copy-pasting from the Thesis (Ideally 25 slides) - Be precise; highlight your contribution - Slides should be error free - Use standard font, size and colours - Do not use animation in the slides - Have a prior trial of your presentation - Anticipate questions; reply in polite but confident manner

  50. Ph. D. xxxxxxxx

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