Chapter 2: Persecution of “The Way” and Heresies

1. Chapter 2: Persecution of “The Way” and Heresies THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

2. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) ANTICIPATORY SET Analyzethe mosaic on page 48, and then discuss the following questions: What does the mosaic depict? What does this mosaic reveal about the character of the Roman people? Is the depiction in this mosaic similar to anything in contemporary culture?

3. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) BASIC QUESTIONS What was the nature of the first Roman persecutions? How did the persecutions of the Christians develop after Domitian? KEY IDEAS Emperor Nero launched a brutal persecution of Christians, scapegoating them for the burning of Rome, for which he himself was rumored to have been responsible. Trajan’s Rescript delcared it a capital crime to profess Christianity. Hadrian’s Rescript advised that Christians should not be prosecuted for professing Christ, which was reversed under Marcus Aurelius. St. Justin Martyr defended Christianity to the Roman senate and emperor.

4. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS In the beginning, what did the Roman rulers consider the Christians to be? They considered the Christians to be a small sect of schismatic Jews. What actions show Nero’s evil character even before his persecution of Christians? He murdered his mother; renounced and slandered his wife before having her beheaded; and forced Seneca, the noble statesman, to commit suicide.

5. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did Nero blame the Christians of Rome for the fire? Nero wanted to remove suspicion from himself. He arrested and tortured several Christians, extracted forced confessions from them, and then ordered a large number of Christians arrested. What did Nero do to Christians during the first persecution? This first persecution, which took place in the City of Rome, was brutal. Christians were sewn into animal skins so huge that hungry dogs would devour them. He had hundreds of live Christians coated with pitch and resin and burned as human torches to light his way as he passed through his gardens and along the streets at night.

6. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS How is Emperor Nero depicted in his sculpture with Seneca? Nero is portrayed as a youth, physically strong, handsome, and elegantly dressed. At the same time he is slouching in his throne and arrogantly looking down at Seneca, his teacher. Why is it thought Nero had set the fire that destroyed much of Rome? Nero intended to seize private property in the center of Rome to build himself a new palace. Nero was rumored to have set the fire to clear the buildings.

7. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Why was it a good idea for dictators like Domitian to make friends with the army? In a dictatorship the armed forces ultimately have the power over life and death. He who controls the army controls the nation. What is the significance of the title Dominus et Deus with respect to Emperor Domitian? “Lord and God,” as he referred to himself, indicates he considered himself—or at least wanted others to consider him—a god. Why did Domitian see the spread of Christianity as a problem, and what steps did he take to stop it? Christianity was spreading from the lower classes to the aristocracy, Domitian’s own class. In response, he murdered his cousin, an office-holding Christian, and levied a special tax on Christians and Jews to pay for a pagan temple.

8. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS To what does vox populi refer? “The voice of the people” during the time of the early Church often meant ignorant actions undertaken by a mob of people, especially against Christians. Of what were Christians accused by the common people? Because they would not sacrifice to the pagan gods, Christians were accused of being irreligious and atheistic. Wild practices were attributed to Christians, including the sacrifice of babies, drinking their blood, and casting evil spells. What was the result of the power of the vox populi? Mobs looted and destroyed Christian churches, cemeteries, and homes. Civil authorities tortured and killed Christians to provide an outlet for the people’s anger.

9. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS What was Nero’s principle for dealing with Christians? Nero’s principle was Christiani non sunt: Let the Christians be exterminated. How is it known that Nero persecuted the Christians? It was reported by the Roman historian Tacitus and the Church historian Eusebius. What was Nero’s fate? The aristocracy in Rome was alienated by Nero’s murders of his mother and wife. After revolts against Roman rule broke out in Judea, Gaul, Africa, and Spain, the army turned against Nero, and he committed suicide.

10. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Why were the “Five Good Emperors” called good? The five emperors following Domitian were good because they were skillful leaders of the empire. They were relatively stable people who secured the empire’s borders. Were the “Five Good Emperors” good for the Christians? The first four were more moderate toward Christians than Domitian had been, but they still persecuted them. Extension: Hadrian eradicated the Jews in the Holy Land. Why was Trajan a successful emperor from the Roman point of view? Trajan treated abandoned children and the poor humanely, achieved military glory for himself and Rome, undertook many public works projects, extended the territory of the empire, and ruled nearly twenty years.

11. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table about the content of Trajan’s Rescript.

12. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54)

13. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Why was St. Ignatius of Antioch an important writer? His direct contact with the Apostles Sts. Peter and John give his writings special authority. Who persecuted St. Ignatius of Antioch, and why? He was arrested under Emperor Trajan for being the Bishop of Antioch. Why did St. Ignatius of Antioch ask Christians not to intervene with the pagan officials when he was on his way to Rome? St. Ignatius was afraid the Christians of Rome might persuade the pagan officials to spare his life. He wanted to be God’s wheat, ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so he could be Christ’s pure bread.

14. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS How does Hadrian’s reign demonstrate that the Pax Romana did not manifest peace for everyone? The Jews were decimated in the Holy Land and were banned from entering Jerusalem. How did the plight of Christians improve somewhat after Hadrian’s Rescript? Hadrian ruled that mobs should not be able to take the law in their own hands to murder Christians, and Christians should only be prosecuted for actual violations of the common law instead of solely for being Christian. Why did Hadrian’s ban on circumcision and his plan to turn Jerusalem into a Roman colony infuriate the Jews? Circumcision is essential to the identity of Jews, the sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. Jerusalem had been the Jews’ most important city for a millennium; they had hoped to rebuild the Temple there so they could offer ritual sacrifice again. Extension: Hadrian could not have attacked the Jews more personally than this.

15. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) GUIDED EXERCISE When the governor offered to spare St. Polycarp’s life if he would curse Christ, the bishop replied, “Eighty and six years have I served him, and he never did me any injury: how then can I blaspheme my King and my Savior?” Search the Internet for a copy of Martyrium Polycarpi (“The Martyrdom of Polycarp”) and read it silently.

16. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Under whose peaceful reign was St. Polycarp martyred? He was martyred under Emperor Antoninus Pius. What was the nature of St. Polycarp’s writings? He defended orthodox Catholic beliefs against several early heresies. What merciful offer did the governor of Smyrna make to St. Polycarp? If St. Polycarp would have cursed Christ publicly, his life would have been spared.

17. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS Of what philosophy was Emperor Marcus Aurelius an adherent? He was a Stoic, which encouraged one to live free of passion and unmoved by joy or grief, submitting fully to fate. What practice did Marcus Aurelius reinstate that made things worse for Christians? He reinstituted anonymous denunciations of Christians. Why did provincial governors tolerate mob attacks on Christians? For Roman governors serving in unruly provinces, allowing mob attacks on Christians was a way they could let people defuse their anger on something other than the empire itself.

18. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) FOCUS QUESTIONS What did St. Justin Martyr have in common with Emperor Marcus Aurelius? Both loved philosophy, although St. Justin came to believe the teachings of Christ were far superior to philosophy alone. To whom did St. Justin Martyr address his two defenses of the Faith? He addressed them audaciously to the Roman emperor and the senate. What did the judicial sentence Ad Metalla mean? This dreaded punishment sent a prisoner “to the metal mines,” where he endured brutal conditions and certain death.

19. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) CLOSURE Free write for five minutes summarizing the persecutions Christians experienced in the period of time after Emperor Domition through Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

20. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 1–5 (p. 90) Practical Exercise 1 (p. 91) Workbook Questions 1–30 Read “Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan” through “The Edict of Milan” (pp. 55–60)

21. 1. Persecutions and the Five Good Emperors (pp. 46–54) ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Free write for five minutes on what was most surprising about this period in the history of the Church.

22. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) ANTICIPATORY SET Imagine you are the bishop of an Italian diocese AD 202 and have received word that Emperor Severus has outlawed circumcision and Baptism. Write a brief letter to the Christians under your care, advising them how to respond to this decree.

23. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) BASIC QUESTIONS How were persecutions under Diocletian the worst Christians had suffered under Roman emperors? Why was the Edict of Milan (AD 313) issued, and what change did it make in the lives of Christians? KEY IDEAS Persecutions under Diocletian were the worst Christians had endured because they were the most widespread and inclusive; Christians throughout the empire had either to renounce the Faith or to face death. Constantine attributed his victory at the Milvian Bridge to the intervention of the Christian God. To stay in his good graces, he issued the Edict of Milan, which gave the Christians the freedom to worship.

24. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS Even though St. Irenæus was from Asia Minor, where did he serve as bishop? He served in Lyons in Gaul (modern-day France). Extension: This indicates the catholic (universal) nature of the Church. What key elements of the nature of the Church did St. Irenæus emphasize to defend the Faith against Gnostic heretics? He emphasized the episcopacy, Scripture, and Tradition. What method did St. Irenæus use to combat heresy? He described the origin and history of each heresy systematically, contrasting its false claims with true Faith.

25. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS How did Decius attack Christians to a new degree? Before his reign attacks on Christians were local, either limited to the city of Rome or directed toward specific provinces. The Edict of Decius (AD 250) was empire-wide. Why did Decius order a return to the ancient religious practices? He intended to reinvigorate the empire’s strength by a unity of religious practice and belief. How numerous were Christians by AD 250, and why did Decius see them as a threat? About one-third of the empire was Christian. Decius assumed—because Christians’ ultimate allegiance is to Christ and not the state—that they might prove an obstacle to unify the empire. Extension: It may seem strange to a modern student a ruler would be willing to kill as many as one-third of his subjects, but similar events occurred in the twentieth century. Pol Pot of Cambodia, Mao of China, Lenin and Stalin of the Soviet Union, and many others killed large percentages of their populations for political ends.

26. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS What strategy did Decius employ to identify Christians? Anyone who refused to offer a sacrifice would be sent into exile or put to death and lose all of his or her property. Who were the sacrificanti, the thurificati and the libellatici? These were Christians who had apostatized under Decius’ persecution. The sacrificanti were those who made a sacrifice. The thurificati were those who burned incense. The libellatici did not sacrifice but purchased certificates of sacrifice. What double loss did the Church suffer because of Decius’ persecution? The Church lost both those faithful who became martyrs and those who apostatized.

27. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS Where was the first Catholic university founded? What might be called the first Catholic university was the Catechetical School in Alexandria, Egypt, in which instruction in Catholic doctrine was combined with an investigation into the sciences and philosophy. How was Origen distinguished? Origen was a prolific writer and scholar who headed the Catechetical School. He was faithful despite two years of imprisonment and torture. He initiated the use of the homily. How do Origen’s writings illustrate that individual theologians are not infallible? Despite being one the greatest theologians of the early Church, he held erroneous positions on the relationship between God the Father and God the Son and on the final salvation of the damned.

28. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) GUIDED EXERCISE Think/Pair/Share using the following questions (cf. p. 57): According to St. Lawrence the deacon, what is the Church’s greatest treasure? Why might he have thought this?

29. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table about Valerian’s Rescripts.

30. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61)

31. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS How did Diocletian become emperor? Diocletian was named emperor by the army after Numerian was murdered. Why did the Church historian Eusebius initially praise Diocletian? Diocletian initially left Christians alone, but this was only because he was distracted by fighting the Persians and Germanic tribes.

32. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS Why did Diocletian decide to eradicate Christianity? Though he admired some of its adherents, he decided to eradicate Christianity at the urging of two of his co-emperors, who argued it would be beneficial to the empire. Why was Diocletian’s persecution the worst the early Christians had suffered? It was the most widespread and targeted all Christians, especially in the eastern half of the empire, where few earlier persecutions had reached. What was the effect of Diocletian’s edicts? Thousands of faithful Christians were martyred.

33. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Complete the following table about the effects of Diocletian’s edicts on Christians in the Roman Empire.

34. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61)

35. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) FOCUS QUESTIONS What was the effect of the Edict of Milan? It restored all property taken from the Church by the empire and granted Christians the right to worship in freedom. It legitimized the Church for the first time since Nero’s decree had outlawed her AD 64. What might have been the political motives for issuing the Edict of Milan? Constantine might have seen Christianity as a way to unify his empire. What did Constantine do at the end of his life? He was baptized (though by an Arian bishop) on his deathbed.

36. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) CLOSURE Free write for five minutes framing an answer to the following question: Why did the Roman government attack Christianity with such vehemence?

37. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 6–10 (p. 90) Practical Exercises 2–3 (p. 91) Workbook Questions 31–59 Read “Early Heresies” through “Docetism” (pp. 62–66)

38. 2. Later Persecutions and the Edict of Milan (pp. 55–61) ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Write a paragraph on a separate sheet of paper about the episcopacy and Tradition in the early Church.

39. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) ANTICIPATORY SET Complete the following table contrasting common beliefs of the Gnostics with Christian doctrine.

40. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66)

41. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) BASIC QUESTIONS What is heresy? Which doctrines did Gnostics, Marcionists, Manichæans, Montanists, and Docetists deny? KEY IDEAS Heresy is a post-baptismal, obstinate disbelief in one or more articles of the Faith. Gnosticism syncretizes Christian symbolism and bases salvation on secret knowledge. Marcionism creates a false dualism between law and love. Marcion identified the supposedly evil, vengeful God of the Law with the Gnostic Demiurge; he identified the Supreme Being as the good God of Love. Manichæism is a Gnostic, dualistic religion in which there are two equal gods: one good and the other evil. It holds that the world was created by Satan but secret knowledge and severe asceticism can bring salvation. Montanism holds that the arrival of the Kingdom of God is imminent and its leaders are inspired directly by the Holy Spirit. Docetism claims that God would never have become man and suffer such a degrading death, so someone else must have been substituted for Christ on the Cross.

42. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Complete the following table on four early heresies.

43. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66)

44. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS What is the Deposit of Faith? The Deposit of Faith is the sum of all truths revealed in Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition; it is entrusted to the Church and interpreted infallibly by the Magisterium of the Church. Extension: It is the fullness of the Faith entrusted by Christ to the Apostles and their successors, the bishops. What is heresy, and what are its two kinds? Heresy is derived from the Deposit of Faith but denies or alters some part or parts of it. Material heresy occurs when a baptized person is ignorant about some aspect of the Faith, misunderstands it, or makes an erroneous judgment. Formal heresy occurs when a baptized person makes a free, conscious decision to deny some part of the Deposit of Faith. Why did the Greeks tend to look down on the material world, and how did it affect their acceptance of the Incarnation? Platonic philosophers viewed the material world as inferior to the world of ideas. Material entities were thought to be images of the world of ideas, with matter as an obstacle to contemplation and personal perfection. Thus, it would not have made sense in their minds for God, the perfect idea, to take on imperfect matter (a body).

45. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS According to the Gnostics, what was wrong with Judaism? It was a false religion worshiping the evil Demiurge, mistakenly claiming that the world is good. What might a devout Jew think of Gnosticism? He or she would probably see Gnosticism as blasphemous. According to the Gnostics, who is the redeemer? Jesus, the Redeemer, was a good divine being whose mission was to bring secret knowledge to man.

46. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS According to the Gnostics, why would it have been impossible for Christ to have taken on human nature? Since Jesus was a divine being, he could not have had a naturally evil human nature. What was the Crucifixion according to the Gnostics? Christ’s body was just an apparition; his spirit left his body before the Crucifixion. Why is Gnosticism basically pessimistic and Christianity basically optimistic? Gnostics see the world as evil with no way out for most people. Christians see creation as fundamentally good. Although sin entered the world through Adam and Eve, hope has been restored through Christ’s Redemption.

47. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Marcion think about Judaism? He rejected it as founded by the Gnostic evil Demiurge. What does it mean to call Marcionism dualistic? Marcionism put law and love in opposition. The Law was the work of the Demiurge, whereas love was preached by Jesus, the messenger of the good God. How did Marcion contribute to the formation of the canon of Sacred Scripture? Marcion rejected the Old Testament and most of the New Testament. This prompted the Church to define which books are inspired by the Holy Spirit.

48. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS Out of what earlier heresy did Manichæism probably grow? It probably grew out of Gnosticism. According to the Manichees, what kind of cosmological battle is taking place? The universe is a battleground between Satan and God, darkness and light. Satan’s material world is wholly evil; he had stolen some light particles from God and placed them in the brains of humans. Manichæism promises a way to liberate that light through secret knowledge and rituals. Who was probably the most famous convert from Manichæism? St. Augustine was a Manichæan as a young man.

49. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to write one-sentence definitions of Marcionism and Manichæism.

50. 3. Early Heresies (pp. 62–66) FOCUS QUESTIONS Who was probably the most famous Montanist heretic? Tertullian was the most famous Montanist heretic. Why did the Montanists reject the authority of the Church? Montanus and his two female prophets, Prisca and Maximilla, claimed their authority came from the Holy Spirit directly. How were the Montanists stricter than the Church? They taught that Christians who had fallen from grace could never be redeemed. They rejected the possibility of forgiveness of sins after Baptism.