Theory & Methods in Social Science

Theory & Methods in Social Science a brief introduction to

Social Science Research • Research: the systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested

Social Science Research • Basic or Pure Research: aim is to develop a body of general knowledge for the understanding of human social behaviour • Applied Research: aim is to provide knowledge and information that can be used to influence social policy or evaluate a current social program

Theory & Methods • Theory: A systematic explanation for observations that relate to a particular aspect of life • Method: a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something REMEMBERMETHODS are the ways we collect evidence/dataTHEORIES are how we interpret evidence/data

“Theory without data is empty, but data without theory is blind.”- C. Wright Mills, American sociologist, 1916 –1962

Theoretical Approaches • Theoretical orientation: general attitude about how cultural phenomena are to be explained • Paradigm: model or framework for understanding (that is, theoretical orientation) that shapes both what we see and how we understand it

Theoretical Approaches Theoretical orientation = Paradigm

Theoretical Approaches:Social Exchange Theory • Views society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments • Human beings make social decisions based on perceived costs and benefits

Theoretical Approaches:Conflict Theory • Views social behavior as a process of conflict, the attempt of groups o dominate others and avoid being dominated • Often focuses on class, gender, and ethnic struggles but can be applied to any groups with competing interests • Example: Michael Chossudovsky’s 1997 analysis of International Monetary Fun and World Bank

Theoretical Approaches:Symbolic Interaction • Emphasizes how people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true • Addresses subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors • Meanings are negotiated through use of language • Example: Teenage smoking

Theoretical Approaches:Structural Functionalism • Also known as Social Systems Theory • A social entity (i.e. an organization or a whole society) is like an organism, made up of different parts all contributing to function of whole • Emphasizes interconnectedness of social life –looks for “functions” served by different components of society • Example: ÉmileDurkheim’s analysis of deviant behavior’s function in society

Methods:Survey Methods • Survey research collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about thoughts/feelings/behaviors • Includes questionnaires and interviews • Strengths: Large sample sizes possible • Weaknesses: difficult to get responses, can tell us what people think/believe but not what they actually do

Methods:Field Research • Refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey • Purpose is to observe specific behaviors in subject’s natural setting • Includes participant observation, ethnography, and the case study • Strengths: Yields detailed, accurate, real-to-life information • Weaknesses: Time consuming, difficult to objectively organize data, answers questions about what people do but not why

Methods:Experimental Methods • Classic experiment: Pre-testing and post-testing of experimental group and control group • Strength: Allows us to test for cause-and-effect relationships • Weaknesses: “Hawthorne Effect,” ethical concerns

Methods:Unobtrusive Methods • Relies on secondary data sources such as reports, government records, newspapers, memoirs, letters, journals • Strengths: makes good use of already existing data • Weaknesses: can be difficult to find data sources

Qualitative & Quantitative Data • Quantitative: • data that can be expressed in numbers • because the data is in a numeric form, we can apply statistical tests including descriptive statistics like the mean, median, and standard deviation, and inferential statistics like t-tests, ANOVAs, or multiple regression correlations • Qualitative: • describes the qualities or characteristics of something; cannot easily reduce these descriptions to numbers (sometimes can achieve with encoding) • Instead of statistical analysis, researchers look for trends in the data

Which is more trustworthy for a study? Why? Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” -Mark Twain, American writer, 1835 - 1910

"Women are paid 77 cents on the dollar for doing the same work as men." -Barack ObamaJune 21st, 2012 campaign ad

Bureau of Labor Department stats Median earnings of full-time female workers is 77% of the median earnings of full-time male workers….

A few considerations… • How many hours is “full-time?” • Anything between 35 and 80… • “Full-time” men average more hours • What is “the same work?” • Doesn’t differentiate between different occupations with income gaps like teacher/lawyer • Women are more likely to be in lower paying field such as education, social work

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind of work?

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind of work? …or does it reflect that men work, on average, more hours per week in different, higher-paid fields?

Does that statistic REALLY mean that a woman is paid LESS than a man doing the SAME kind of work? …or does it reflect that men work, on average, more hours per week in different, higher-paid fields? …in any case we can’t be sure because the statistic is not based on a comparison of men and women doing the same kind of work for the same number of hours.

Qualitative & Quantitative Data • Quantitative: • Provides BREADTH • Qualitative: • Provides DEPTH

Battered Dogs Get More Empathy Than Battered Adults

Battered Dogs Get More Empathy Than Battered Adults • What is the research question? • What methods were used? • What were the findings? • What theoretical approach was used in the interpretation of the findings?

Ethical Considerations • Voluntary participation • No harm to participants • Anonymity and confidentiality • Deception (debriefing) • Analysis and reporting • Institutional Review Boards • Professional Codes of Ethics

Summary • Social scientists utilize a variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods to collect data on social phenomena • no method is best, it depends on the research question to be answered • Theoretical orientations provide a framework for interpreting the data collected by the various methods • many exist but are not necessarily contradictory, rather they offer different ways of examining the same phenomenon • Social scientists conduct both pure research (with the goal of simply expanding our knowledge ) and applied research (with the goal of addressing social problems and concerns)

Theory & Methods in Social Science