Social Psychology Chapter 13

1. Social PsychologyChapter 13 AP Psychology Alice F. Short Hilliard Davidson High School

2. Chapter Preview • Social Cognition • Social Behavior • Social Influence • Intergroup Relations • Close Relationships • Social Psychology and Health and Wellness

3. Social Psychology • social psychology - the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people • social cognitions • social influences • social relations

4. Social Cognition • How do people select, interpret, remember, and use social information? • Person Perception • physical attractiveness • stereotype – a generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another • natural = cognitive processing limitations • “Beautiful is good” stereotype • self-fulfilling prophecy – expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true • teacher expectations of “late bloomers”  expectations met • composite faces, symmetry, and youthfulness • first impressions • 100 milliseconds  form first impression • attribution – the process by which we come to understand the cause of others’ behavior and form an impression of them as individuals

5. Social Cognition: Attribution Theory • attributions - explanations for why people behave the way they do • attribution theory - attempt to discover underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior • internal/external causes • internal: traits and abilities • external: social pressure, aspects of situation • stable/unstable causes • hostile or bad mood? • controllable/uncontrollable causes • should we hold it against you?

6. Social Cognition: Attribution • attribution errors • actor – person who produces the behavior • observer – person who offers a causal explanation for actor’s behavior • observers often explain actors’ behaviors incorrectly • fundamental attribution error • overestimate the importance of internal traits • underestimate the importance of external causes • Zimbardo on Abu Ghraib prison – TED TALKS • actors often explain own behavior in terms of external causes

7. Fundamental Attribution Error

8. Social Cognition • heuristics - cognitive shortcuts that speed decision making • stereotypes = type of heuristic • false consensus effect • overestimating the degree to which everyone else thinks or acts the way we do • use our outlook to predict that of others

9. A SHORT Time to Ponder • How do politicians use the false consensus effect to their advantage?

10. The Self as a Social Object • self-esteem – the degree to which we have positive or negative feelings about ourselves • positive illusions – views of ourselves that are not necessarily rooted in reality • self-serving bias – tendency to take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure • internal attributions • external attributions • self-objectification – tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others • DOCUMENTARY: MISSRepresentation

11. A SHORT Time to Ponder • What’s so wrong with average? (By definition, 50 percent of people will always be below average.) • In what ways do you objectify yourself? • Would you perform differently depending on the way you were dressed?

12. Social Cognition: The Self as Object • stereotype threat - a self-fulfilling fear about being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype about our group • living “down” to expectations • African American males = work academically by checking box • White males = worse at sports when reminded • Asian women = better at math by checking box “Asian” box, worse by checking “female” box • social comparison - process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people • social comparison theory – when no objective means are available to evaluate our opinions and abilities, we compare ourselves with others

13. A SHORT Time to Ponder • What stereotype should you think about for yourself before starting the AP Psychology test, or any academic test for that matter?

14. Attitudes • attitudes - beliefs about people, places, and ideas • Can attitudespredict behavior? • when attitudes are strong • when attitudes are rehearsed • when person has vested interest • Can behavior predict attitudes? • cognitive dissonance – an individuals psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts • uneasy when behavior ≠beliefs • effort justification – type of dissonance reduction, means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something • low money • hazing • self perception theory – Daryl Bem’s (1967) theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior • I do something; therefore, I must like it.

15. Cognitive Dissonance Theory • Discomfort caused by two dissonant thoughts • thoughts of ones attitude v. ones behavior • Dissonance reduced by • changing behaviors to match attitude • changing attitudes to match behavior

16. Self-Perception Theory • self-perception theory - individuals make inferences about their own attitudes by perceiving their own behavior, especially if their attitudes are unclear • cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory  explain the connection between attitudes and behavior

17. Attitudes and Behavior

18. Persuasion • 2 Essential Questions: • What makes an individual decide to give up an original attitude and adopt a new one? • What makes a person decide to act on an attitude that he or she has not acted on before

19. Persuasion • TheCommunicator (credibility) • trustworthiness, expertise, attractiveness, likeability, similarity • Medium (television versus print) – but should it? • TheTarget (age, attitude, strength) • Message (rational versus emotional strategy) • elaboration likelihood model: • central route – sound, logical argument • effective: ability and motivation to pay attention to the facts • peripheral route – non-message factors (credibility, attractiveness, emotional appeals) • effective: people are not paying attention; don’t want to expend mental effort

20. Persuasion • Successful Persuasion • foot-in-the-door technique • small request  big demand • door-in-the-face technique • biggest demand  smaller “concessionary demand” • reciprocity and obligation • SHORT DISCUSSION: How do you use either of these techniques on your parents? • Resisting Persuasion • inoculation – William McGuire • introducing a weak version of a persuasive message and allowing them time to argue against it (like a vaccine) • inoculation: Credit card companies prey on college students!

21. Social Behavior • we behave in social ways toward the people around us • two extremes of human social activity… • altruism (prosocial behavior) • aggression

22. Prosocial Behavior • altruism (prosocial behavior) - an unselfish interest in helping someone else • random acts of kindness • debate: is it possible to be completely altruistic? • Ayn Rand: opposed to altruism… why? • egoism – giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present one-self as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid censure from ones self and others for failing to live up to society’s expectations • reciprocity

23. Prosocial Behavior • explanations of altruism • evolutionary – promoting survival of family’s genes • research: humans not necessarily self-centered • animals: demonstrate altruism • psychological factors • mood • happy people = more helpful • feelings of elevation (video: photo shoot) • empathy – a person’s feelings of oneness with the emotional state of another • sociocultural factors • market economies – more prosocial behavior (trust = requirement) • investment in established religion – emphasis on golden rule • gender • women: more helpful in nurturing situations • men: more helpful in dangerous situations and when feel competent to help

24. Prosocial Behavior • The Bystander Effect • Darley and Latané (1968) • individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present then when the observer is alone • diffusion of responsibility • Media Influence • listening to music with prosocial lyrics  increases kindness • TV shows with positive content  increase prosocial behavior • Lemmings video game  prosocial behavior

25. A SHORT Time to Ponder • Do you believe that human nature is more selfish or altruistic? • “Happy people just don’t kill their husbands, they just don’t.” – Elle Woods, Legally Blonde • Do your favorite TV shows promote prosocial behavior? • Should TV be required to promote prosocial behavior? • Can you think of a time when altruism is linked to aggression?

26. Aggression • aggression – social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or verbally • biological influences • evolutionary views – more likely to survive • genetic basis • breeding docile animals and vicious animals • physical aggression – more linked to genes • social aggression – more linked to environmental • neurobiological factors • limbic system - active • frontal lobes of brain – smaller / less functioning • low levels of serotonin • high levels of testosterone • results = less consistent with humans than animals • operational definitions of aggression  external validity criticism

27. Aggression • psychological influences • aversive circumstances  triggers aggression • frustration – the blocking of an individual’s attempts to reach a goal  triggers aggression • frustration-aggression hypothesis – frustration always leads to aggression • weather, physical pain, crowding  triggers aggression • cognitive determinants • priming (seeing a weapon  prime hostile thoughts) • perception of unfairness  triggers aggression • observational learning • Bobo doll study, Bandura, Ch. 6 • violence on TV • violence at home

28. Aggression • sociocultural influences • cultural variations • inequality (gap b/w the rich and poor) • U.S. higher homicide rate compared to other developed countries… greater inequality (YouTube clip) • culture of honor • honor killings • the South

29. Aggression • media violence • television • increases aggression • changes attitudes towards violence • violence in home = more significant • violent pornography • small effect on male sexual aggression • increases acceptance of violence toward women • rape myth – the false belief that women desire coercive sex • violent video games • “rational though is suspended and highly arousing aggressive scripts are increasingly likely to be learned” • CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: • more aggressive • less sensitive to real-life violence • more likely to engage in delinquent acts • lower grades

30. Critical Controversy:A SHORT Time to Ponder • Do you or people you know play violent video games? If so, what impact, if any, do you think this activity has on your or their thoughts and feelings? • Would you allow your child to play violent video games? Why or why not? • What do you think policymakers should do with regard to the controversy over the effects of playing video games?

31. Aggression • reducing aggression • decrease rewards • lessen exposure • encourage empathy • monitor adolescents’ activity

32. Social Influence: Conformity • conformity – a change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard • can lead to enhanced cooperation among group members • Asch’s Experiment (1951) • factors that contribute to conformity • informational social influence – the influence other people have on us because we want to be right • normative social influence – the influence others have on us because we want them to like us • volunteer participant conformed to incorrect answers 35% of time • VIDEO Clip: • demonstrates power of conformity (breaking social norms) • cognitive neuroscience • fMRI images - when women found others disagreed, they responded as mistakes

33. Social Influence: Conformity • Which line is the same length? • CHALLENGE: As a group, try to convince someone of something obviously incorrect…

34. Social Influence: Obedience • obedience – behavior the complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority • obedient: authority figure demands  we do • Stanley Milgram’s Experiments (1965, 1974) • factors that contribute to disobedience • disobedient models • authority figure not legitimate or not close by • victim made to seem more human • ethical concerns regarding Milgram – deception • VIDEO: TED Talks (may leave the room – very graphic)

35. Social Influence: Obedience • How far do you think you would go?

36. Group Influence • Deindividuation • erosion of personal identity and responsibility • anonymity • example: KKK • group, darkness, wearing white • Social Contagion • imitative behavior • spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas • examples: social fads, the popularity of dog breeds, the spread of unhealthy behaviors (smoking and drinking in adolescents), symptoms of eating disorders among young women • experiment: go someplace quiet and start coughing • observations: misbehaviors in school (talking, packing up early, etc.) • Group Performance • social facilitation: arousal with well-learned tasks • social loafing: reduced accountability

37. Group Decision Making • Risky Shift • group decisions are riskier than average individual decisions • Group Polarization • discussion strengthens the individual’s position

38. Group Decision Making: Groupthink • groupthink • group harmony valued over “right” or “correct” • impaired decision making and avoidance of realistic appraisal • symptoms of groupthink • overestimating the power and morality of one’s group • close-mindedness • lack of willingness to hear all sides of an argument • pressure for uniformity “get with the program” • dissent meets with very strong disapproval • avoiding groupthink • avoid isolation • allow the airing of all sides of an argument • have an impartial leader • include outside experts in the debate • encourage group members who are strongly identified with the group to speak out in defense

39. Group Decision Making: Majority-Minority Influence • Majority-Minority Influence • majority: normative and informational pressure • informational – greater opportunity to share • normative – set group norms  those who do not go along may be ignored or given the boot • minority: informationalpressure • cannot win with normative pressure • must use informational pressure • consistency and confidence = key • must win over majority members

40. A SHORT Challenge • Can you think of a minority position that you support? • Create a cogent argument in support. • Then consistently and confidently defend it.

41. Intergroup Relations • Group Identity • us versus them • Social Identity • define ourselves in terms of group membership • assumes commonalities

42. Intergroup Relations • Henry Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory • our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves • in-groups versus out-groups • in-group – a group that has special value in comparison with other groups • out-group • focus more on the differences between the groups than on their similarities • Tajfel’sReseach(1978) • dot estimation (over or under) to create arbitrary groups • asked to award money to other participants •  awarded money to members of their “own group” more • conclusion: we favor the members of in-groups based on trivial differences... • Ethnocentrism • favoring one’s own group over other groups • out-groups not just different, but worse/inferior/less than

43. A SHORT Time to Ponder:Tajfel’sReseach(1978) • How has this concept been used around the world and through history to oppress people? • Rwanda • Slavery in the United States

44. Social Identity

45. Prejudice • an unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members • explicit versus implicit racism • explicit racism – a persons conscious and openly shared attitude, which might be measured using a questionaire • implicit racism – attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level… must be measure with a method that does not require awareness • Implicit Associations Test (IAT) – a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person with good things • THE DOLL TEST: VIDEO!! If you find it—the original vide, I will drop the lowest grade from every person in your class period for the fourth quarter AND I will buy your class donuts and coffee from the place of your choice • explanations for prejudice • competition between groups • cultural learning • Dream Deferred, post cards, and kids learning racism…  • motivation to enhance self-esteem • limitations in cognitive processes

46. Prejudice • “ethnic cleansing” • U.S. racial prejudice • “black names” video • Freakonomics video clip • white names – 50% more likely to get an interview • Are you racist? • 88% of Americans say no

47. Stereotyping and Prejudice • stereotype - a generalization about a group • discrimination - unjustified negative or harmful action • Civil Rights Act of 1964 (revised 1991) • unlawful to deny someone employment on the basis of gender or ehtnicity • video: actresses / typecasting

48. Stereotyping and Prejudice • How can relationships between ethnic groups be improved? • contact does not lead to tolerance / warm relations • Gordon Allport(1954) • think that they are equal status • feel that an authority figure sanctions the positive relationships • believe that friendship might emerge from the interaction • engage in cooperative tasks in which everyone hast to contribute

49. Stereotyping and Prejudice • Improving Interethnic Relations • Contact Only is Not Effect • Works best if groups: • think they are of equal status • feel an authority figure approves positive relations • anticipate emergent friendship • engage in cooperative tasks • task-oriented cooperation: • Sherif’s robbers cave study • Aronson’s jigsaw classroom

50. Stereotyping and Prejudice • task-oriented cooperation: • MuzaferSherif’s robbers cave study • organized groups of 11-year-old boys into “Rattlers” and the “Eagles” in a summer camp called Robbers Cave • competed in baseball, touch football, tug-of-war • relations became ugly • brought together to complete tasks – repairing camp’s only water supply system, pooling money to rent movie • shows how competitive and cooperative activities changes perceptions of the out-group • Eliot Aronson’s jigsaw classroom • real-world application: violence and ethnic tensions in desegregated schools between African Americans, Mexican Americans and Whites • jigsaw classroom – all students have to pull together to get the “big picture” • each group contains similar ethnic and ability level • associated with increased self-esteem, better academic performance, friendships among classmates, and improved interethnic perceptions