Human Nature 1

1. Human Nature 1

2. Mencius (孟子) • 372-289 • His is one of the 4 books • Career mirrored Confucius’ • Born in Zou • Studied under Zisi • Wandered amongst states • Unsuccesfully sought official positions • Minister in Qi (319-312) • Gathered students

3. Challenges to Confucianism • Two rivals The words of Yang Zhu and Mo Di fill the country. If you listen to people's discourses throughout it, you will find that they have adopted the views either of Yang or of Mo. Now, Yang's principle is "each one for himself," which does not acknowledge the claims of the sovereign. Mo's principle is "to love all equally," which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of a beast. M3b9

4. Challenges to Confucianism • Two rivals • Mozi – interests of all are equally valued • Yang Chu – one’s own interests are supreme • Third rival? • Legalists • Much more important than Yang Chu • They largely agreed with Yang Chu on human motivations

5. Interests (利, lì) • The pursuit of interests will not likely result in moral acts What is the point of mentioning the word “profit”? All that matters is that there should be benevolence and rightness. … No benevolent man ever abandons his parents, and no dutiful man ever puts his prince last. M1a1

6. Human Nature (性, xìng) • Our ability to be trained in the virtues depends on our nature • Many different views current ‘Gaozi said, “There is neither good nor bad in human nature.” … ‘But others say, “Human nature can become good or it can become bad. … ‘Then there are others who say, “There are those who are good by nature, and there are those who are bad by nature. M6a6

7. Human Nature (性, xìng) • Gàozĭ (告子), ca. 420–350 Appetite for food and sex is nature M6a1 • Human Nature is as subject to influence as water

8. Human Nature (性, xìng) • Against Gàozĭ It is certainly the case,’ said Mencius, ‘that water does not show any preference for either east or west, but does it show the same indifference to high and low? … Now, in the case of water, by splashing it one can make it shoot up higher than one’s forehead, and by forcing it one can make it stay on a hill. How can that be the nature of water? M6a2

9. Human Nature (性, xìng) • Gàozĭ • The nature of a thing is the set of properties that are common to all instances of that thing • Hence, food and sex • Mencius • The nature of a thing is that which is the unique possibility of that thing. • Food and sex are common to all animals • ‘heart’(心, xīn) is unique to Man

10. Heart (心, xīn) • A cognitive faculty capable of judgement • Unlike other faculties The organs of hearing and sight are unable to think and and can be misled by external things… The organ of the heart can think. M6a15 • Some now call it the ‘Heart/Mind’ • Allows us to transcend interests and judge ‘morally’

11. Heart (心, xīn) • All men are capable of the first steps to moral judgement • First proof: My reason for saying that no man is devoid of a heartsensitive to the suffering of others is this. Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, … From this it can be seen that whoever is devoid of the heart of compassion is not human M2a6

12. Heart (心, xīn) • All men are capable of the first steps to moral judgement • First proof: My reason for saying that no man is devoid of a heartsensitive to the suffering of others is this. Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, … From this it can be seen that whoever is devoid of the heart of compassion is not human M2a6

13. Heart (心, xīn) • All men are capable of the first steps to moral judgement • First proof: My reason for saying that no man is devoid of a heartsensitive to the suffering of others is this. Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, … From this it can be seen that whoever is devoid of the heart of compassion is not human M2a6 • Note: this doesn’t mean we will all act morally in this situation, but we will have an appropriate feeling (if we are humans)

14. Heart (心, xīn) • All men are capable of the first steps to moral judgement • Second proof: • The sages existed before there was anyone to teach morality • the sages did nevertheless become moral • Therefore the sages were capable of making themselves moral • The heart of the sage is of the same kind as the heart of all men • Therefore it is possible for all men, even today, to become moral.

15. Virtues - Origins • There are four universal intuitions, and they are the necessary bases of four virtues The heart of compassion is the germ [duan, 端] of benevolence[rén]; the heart of shame, of dutifulness [yì]; the heart of courtesy and modesty, of observance of the rites[lǐ]; the heart of right and wrong, of wisdom[zhì, 智]. M2a6

16. Virtues - Development • How can we turn those four intuitions into real virtues? • Reflection and Extension The organ of the heart can think. But it will only find the answer if it does think; otherwise it will not find the answer M6a15 But what kind of thinking?

17. Virtues - Development • How can we turn those four intuitions into real virtues? • Reflection and Extension • Note similarities between situations that inspire the heart and those that don’t • Consider them thoughtfully • If you judge they are similar in the right ways, then your intuitions will extend their range to include the situation that was outside your initial concern • Consider King Xuan and the Ox

18. Virtues - Development • King Xuan of Qi • Saw an ox going to sacrifice • Thought it looked sad, like an innocent man going to be executed • Spared it and said take a lamb instead • If you can extend compassion even to an ox, then you can extend it wherever it is appropriate

19. Virtues - Development • Note: Virtue is not a matter of principles • The lamb was still sent to slaughter There is no harm in this. It is the way of a benevolent man. You saw the ox but not the lamb M1a7 • This is a general feature Not to help a sister-in-law who is drowning is to be a brute. It is prescribed by the rites that, in giving and receiving, man and woman should not touch each other, but in stretching out a helping hand to the drowning sister-in-law one uses one’s discretion M4a17

20. Virtues - Nourishment • The seeds need to be nourished by qì (氣/气) • Qì is a part-physical, part-spiritual universal flux • Gross qì descends; refined qì ascends • The body attracts gross qì; the heart requires refined qì. • qì is replenished overnight • The heart must be fit to receive and retain this qì

21. Virtues – The Problem of Evil • Consider the state of Ox Mountain Mencius said. ‘There was a time when the trees were luxuriant on Ox Mountain. As it is on the outskirts of a great metropolis, the trees are continually lopped by axes. Is it any wonder that they are no longer fine? With the respite they get in the day and in the night, and the moistening by the rain and dew, there is certainly no lack of new shoots coming out, but then the cattle and sheep come to graze upon the mountain. That is why it is as bald as it is. People, seeing only its baldness, tend to think that it never had any trees. But can this possibly be the nature of a mountain? M6a8

22. Virtues – Why be good? • First reason • Success in the pursuit of interests is determined by fate (mìng, 命) • You cannot control it • Your efforts in this direction are in vain • Don’t do that • Concentrate on that whose success you can determine • The development of your own heart is up to you • Do that

23. Virtues – Why be good? • Second reason • Be better than the beasts and birds That whereby Man differs from the birds and beasts is but slight. The mass of people cast it away, whereas the superior man preserves it M4b19 • Be better than small men Those who follow that part of themselves which is great are great men, and those who follow that part of themselves which is small are small men M6a15