The Big Picture

2. The Big Picture KeynesianCross IScurve IS-LMmodel Explanation of short-run fluctuations Theory of Liquidity Preference LM curve Agg. demandcurve Model of Agg. Demand and Agg. Supply Agg. supplycurve

3. Context • Chapter 9 introduced the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply. • Long run • prices flexible • output determined by factors of production & technology • unemployment equals its natural rate • Short run • prices fixed • output determined by aggregate demand • unemployment is negatively related to output

4. Context • This chapter develops the IS-LMmodel, the theory that yields the aggregate demand curve. • We focus on the short run and assume the price level is fixed. • This chapter (and chapter 11) focus on the closed-economy case. Chapter 12 presents the open-economy case.

5. The Keynesian Cross • A simple closed economy model in which income is determined by expenditure. (due to J.M. Keynes) • Notation: I = planned investment E = C + I + G = planned expenditure Y = real GDP = actual expenditure • Difference between actual & planned expenditure: unplanned inventory investment

6. Elements of the Keynesian Cross consumption function: govt policy variables: for now, plannedinvestment is exogenous: planned expenditure: Equilibrium condition:

7. E =C +I +G MPC 1 Graphing planned expenditure E planned expenditure income, output,Y

8. E =Y Graphing the equilibrium condition E planned expenditure 45º income, output,Y

9. Equilibrium income The equilibrium value of income E planned expenditure E =Y E =C +I +G income, output,Y

10. E At Y1, there is now an unplanned drop in inventory… E =C +I +G2 E =C +I +G1 G Y E1 = Y1 E2 = Y2 Y An increase in government purchases E =Y …so firms increase output, and income rises toward a new equilibrium

11. Finally, solve for Y : Solving for Y equilibrium condition in changes because I exogenous because C = MPC Y Collect terms with Y on the left side of the equals sign:

12. The government purchases multiplier Definition: the increase in income resulting from a $1 increase in G. In this model, the govt purchases multiplier equals Example: If MPC = 0.8, then An increase in G causes income to increase by 5 times as much!

13. Why the multiplier is greater than 1 • Initially, the increase in G causes an equal increase in Y:Y = G. • But Y  C  furtherY  furtherC  furtherY • So the final impact on income is much bigger than the initial G.

14. E E =Y E =C1+I +G E =C2+I +G At Y1, there is now an unplanned inventory buildup… C = MPC T Y E2 = Y2 E1 = Y1 Y An increase in taxes Initially, the tax increase reduces consumption, and therefore E: …so firms reduce output, and income falls toward a new equilibrium

15. Solving for Y eq’m condition in changes I and G exogenous Solving for Y : Final result:

16. The Tax Multiplier def: the change in income resulting from a $1 increase in T : If MPC = 0.8, then the tax multiplier equals

17. The Tax Multiplier …is negative:A tax hike reduces consumer spending, which reduces income. …is greater than one(in absolute value): A change in taxes has a multiplier effect on income. …is smaller than the govt spending multiplier:Consumers save the fraction (1-MPC) of a tax cut, so the initial boost in spending from a tax cut is smaller than from an equal increase in G.

18. Exercise: • Use a graph of the Keynesian Cross to show the impact of an increase in planned investment on the equilibrium level of income/output.

19. The IS curve def: a graph of all combinations of r and Y that result in goods market equilibrium, i.e. actual expenditure (output) = planned expenditure The equation for the IScurve is:

20. E I Y r Y Deriving the IS curve E =Y r  I E =C +I(r2)+G E =C +I(r1)+G  E  Y Y1 Y2 r1 r2 IS Y1 Y2

21. Why the IS curve is negatively sloped • A fall in the interest rate motivates firms to increase investment spending, which drives up total planned spending (E ). • To restore equilibrium in the goods market, output (a.k.a. actual expenditure, Y ) must increase.

22. r r S2 S1 I(r) Y S, I Y2 Y1 The IS curve and the Loanable Funds model (a) The L.F. model (b) The IScurve r2 r2 r1 r1 IS

23. Fiscal Policy and the IS curve • We can use the IS-LMmodel to see how fiscal policy (G and T ) can affect aggregate demand and output. • Let’s start by using the Keynesian Cross to see how fiscal policy shifts the IS curve…

24. E Y r Y Y Shifting the IS curve: G E =Y At any value of r, G  E  Y E =C +I(r1)+G2 E =C +I(r1)+G1 …so the IS curve shifts to the right. Y1 Y2 The horizontal distance of the IS shift equals r1 IS2 IS1 Y1 Y2

25. Exercise: Shifting the IS curve • Use the diagram of the Keynesian Cross or Loanable Funds model to show how an increase in taxes shifts the IScurve.

26. The Theory of Liquidity Preference • due to John Maynard Keynes. • A simple theory in which the interest rate is determined by money supply and money demand.

27. Money Supply The supply of real money balances is fixed: r interest rate M/P real money balances

28. Money Demand Demand forreal money balances: r interest rate L(r) M/P real money balances

29. Equilibrium The interest rate adjusts to equate the supply and demand for money: r interest rate r1 L(r) M/P real money balances

30. How the Fed raises the interest rate To increase r, Fed reduces M r interest rate r2 r1 L(r) M/P real money balances

31. CASE STUDY Volcker’s Monetary Tightening • Late 1970s:  > 10% • Oct 1979: Fed Chairman Paul Volcker announced that monetary policy would aim to reduce inflation. • Aug 1979-April 1980: Fed reduces M/P 8.0% • Jan 1983:  = 3.7% How do you think this policy change would affect interest rates?

32. The effects of a monetary tightening on nominal interest rates short run long run model prices prediction actual outcome Volcker’s Monetary Tightening, cont. Liquidity Preference (Keynesian) Quantity Theory, Fisher Effect (Classical) sticky flexible i > 0 i < 0 8/1979: i= 10.4% 4/1980: i= 15.8% 1/1983: i= 8.2%

33. The LM curve Now let’s put Y back into the money demand function: The LMcurve is a graph of all combinations of r and Y that equate the supply and demand for real money balances. The equation for the LMcurve is:

34. r r LM L(r,Y2) L(r,Y1) Y M/P Y1 Y2 Deriving the LM curve (a) The market for real money balances (b) The LM curve r2 r2 r1 r1

35. Why the LM curve is upward-sloping • An increase in income raises money demand. • Since the supply of real balances is fixed, there is now excess demand in the money market at the initial interest rate. • The interest rate must rise to restore equilibrium in the money market.

36. r r LM2 LM1 L(r,Y1) Y M/P Y1 How M shifts the LM curve (a) The market for real money balances (b) The LM curve r2 r2 r1 r1

37. Exercise: Shifting the LM curve • Suppose a wave of credit card fraud causes consumers to use cash more frequently in transactions. • Use the Liquidity Preference model to show how these events shift the LMcurve.

38. LM r IS Y The short-run equilibrium The short-run equilibrium is the combination of r and Y that simultaneously satisfies the equilibrium conditions in the goods & money markets: Equilibrium interest rate Equilibrium level of income

39. The Big Picture KeynesianCross IScurve IS-LMmodel Explanation of short-run fluctuations Theory of Liquidity Preference LM curve Agg. demandcurve Model of Agg. Demand and Agg. Supply Agg. supplycurve

40. Chapter summary • Keynesian Cross • basic model of income determination • takes fiscal policy & investment as exogenous • fiscal policy has a multiplier effect on income. • IScurve • comes from Keynesian Cross when planned investment depends negatively on interest rate • shows all combinations of r and Ythat equate planned expenditure with actual expenditure on goods & services

41. Chapter summary • Theory of Liquidity Preference • basic model of interest rate determination • takes money supply & price level as exogenous • an increase in the money supply lowers the interest rate • LMcurve • comes from Liquidity Preference Theory when money demand depends positively on income • shows all combinations of randY that equate demand for real money balances with supply

42. Chapter summary • IS-LMmodel • Intersection of ISand LMcurves shows the unique point (Y, r ) that satisfies equilibrium in both the goods and money markets.

43. Preview of Chapter 11 In Chapter 11, we will • use the IS-LMmodel to analyze the impact of policies and shocks • learn how the aggregate demand curve comes from IS-LM • use the IS-LMand AD-ASmodels together to analyze the short-run and long-run effects of shocks • use our models to learn about the Great Depression

46. Context • Chapter 9 introduced the model of aggregate demand and supply. • Chapter 10 developed the IS-LM model, the basis of the aggregate demand curve. • In Chapter 11, we will use the IS-LM model to • see how policies and shocks affect income and the interest rate in the short run when prices are fixed • derive the aggregate demand curve • explore various explanations for the Great Depression

47. LM r IS Y Equilibrium in the IS-LMModel The IScurve represents equilibrium in the goods market. r1 The LMcurve represents money market equilibrium. Y1 The intersection determines the unique combination of Y and rthat satisfies equilibrium in both markets.

48. LM r r1 IS Y1 Y Policy analysis with the IS-LM Model Policymakers can affect macroeconomic variables with • fiscal policy: G and/or T • monetary policy: M We can use the IS-LM model to analyze the effects of these policies.

49. LM r r2 r1 IS2 IS1 Y1 Y2 Y 2. 1. 3. An increase in government purchases 1.IScurve shifts right causing output & income to rise. 2. This raises money demand, causing the interest rate to rise… 3. …which reduces investment, so the final increase in Y

50. LM r r2 1. 2. r1 1. IS2 IS1 Y1 Y2 Y 2. 2. A tax cut Because consumers save (1MPC) of the tax cut, the initial boost in spending is smaller for T than for an equal G… and the IS curve shifts by …so the effects on r and Y are smaller for a T than for an equal G.