Public Speaking Chapter Three

1. Public SpeakingChapter Three Speaking Freely and Ethically

2. Speaking Ethically • Ethics are the beliefs, values, and moral principles by which we determine what is right or wrong. • Some ethical values appear to be universal. • For example, the code for how you should treat others. • Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam all have similar teachings that basically say that you should treat others as you would want yourself to be treated.

3. Speaking Ethically • Ethical consideration should guide every step of your speaking. • In every step of your speech-making process, you should think about the beliefs, values, and moral principles of your audience. • You should also always be thinking of your own beliefs and values.

4. Speaking Freely • The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees free speech. • During WWI, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that free speech could be restricted if it presented a “clear and present danger” to the nation. • This decision by the Supreme Court led to the founding of the American Civil Liberties Union – the first organization formed to protect free speech.

5. Speaking Freely • Slander is free speech that harms someone. • in 1964, the Supreme Court ruled that in order for a person to collect damages (money) for slander, he or she would have to prove that the slanderous statement was made to actually do harm (with “actual malice”)

6. Speaking Freely • A speech act is a behavior, such as burning a flag, that is viewed by law as nonverbal communication and is subject to the same protections and limitations as free speech. • the Patriot Act, passed one month after the September 11th terrorist attacks, gave government agencies more power to investigate, including listening to phone conversations. • The act has been wildly criticized as against freedom of speech.

7. Ethical Speech Guidelines • Ethical speech is speech that is responsible, honest, and tolerant. • Most people generally agree that ethical speech: • has a clear and reasonable goal • uses sound evidence and reasoning • is sensitive to and tolerant of differences • is honest • does not plagiarize

8. Have a Clear, Responsible Goal • The goal of public speech should be clear to the audience. • if you keep your true agenda hidden, you violate your listeners’ rights. • An ethical goal should also be socially responsible. • a socially responsible goal is one that gives listeners choices • an unethical, irresponsible goal tries to coerce or trick people into believing something • Hitler’s speeches were widely known to be physiologically coercive

9. Use Sound Evidence and Reasoning • Ethical speakers use critical-thinking skills such as analysis an evaluation to draw conclusions and formulate arguments. • Unethical speakers substitute false claims and manipulate audience’s emotions instead of using logical arguments. • As a speaker, you should always share with an audience all information that might help them to reach their own decision – even evidence that goes against your argument(s). • You can make your own argument stronger by anticipating and answering the counter-arguments.

10. Be Sensitive and Tolerant of Differences • Being audience-centered means that you are aware (as aware as you possibly can be) of others peoples’ feelings, needs, interests, and backgrounds. This is called accommodation. • A speaker who is sensitive to differences also avoids language that might be interpreted as biased or offensive. (This is not as easy as it sounds!)

11. Be Honest • It is unethical to knowingly give false or misleading information to an audience. • Examples: In 2003, George W. Bush and members of his staff told the public that Iraq was getting nuclear fuel from Africa – even though they knew that this was a false statement (they had official intelligence proving it wrong). • Bill Clinton told the American public in 1998 that he did not have an inappropriate relationship with Monica Lewinsky – which he later had to go back and admit was a lie. • Most people would have been able to forgive the relationship, but not the lie about it.

12. Be Honest • Using hypothetical illustrations can help to clarify or enhance speeches. • Hypothetical illustrations talk about things that never actually occurred, but could happen. • Speaker can use these ethically – ONLY if he or she makes it clear to the audience that it is hypothetical and not real.

13. Plagiarism • To plagiarize is to present someone else’s words or ideas as though they were one’s own. • Plagiaphrasing is using phrases in your speech that came from another source without giving proper credit.

14. Plagiarism • If you use any of the following in your speech, you must give credit to the source: • direct quotes – even if they are brief phrases • opinions, assertions, or ideas of others – even if you paraphrase them instead of quoting them • statistics • any nonoriginal visual materials – graphs, charts, tables, pictures, etc.

15. Plagiarism • An oral citation is the oral presentation about a source (author, title, year…) • A written citation is the written presentation of information about a source, usually formatted according to a convention style guide

16. Listening Ethically • Audience members also share the responsibility for ethical communication. • Communicate Expectations and Feedback: • know what information and ideas you want out of a speech • expect a coherent and organized delivery • communicate your objectives through appropriate nonverbal feedback • nod in agreement • look puzzled if you do not understand

17. Listening Ethically • Be Sensitive to and Tolerant of Differences • It is equally important to exercise social and cultural awareness and tolerance as a member of an audience. • Understanding cultural norms can be complex and challenging, but they are part of the context in which you listen and evaluate the speaker. • Making an effort to understand the needs, goals, and interests of both the speaker and other audience members can help you to react and judge appropriately as a listener.

18. Listen Critically • Courtesy and tolerance are not the same as approval or agreement – it is the audience member’s job to listen critically. • Is the speaker presenting both sides of the issue? • Is the speaker disclosing all of the inforamtion that he or she has access to? • Is the speaker trying to hide something? • Is the speaker being honest about the purpose of the speech?

19. Listening Critically • If you conclude that the speaker’s message or motives are unethical, discuss your opinion with others, and seek out or create a forum through which you can express your discontent. • In this case, talk to a teacher, professor, etc.