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Chapter 2: The Science of Life-Span Development

?There is nothing quite so practical as a good theory."Kurt LewinAmerican Social Psychologist, 20th Century. Theories of Development. As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses.. Definition of Theory. A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions..

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Chapter 2: The Science of Life-Span Development

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    1. Chapter 2: The Science of Life-Span Development

    2. “There is nothing quite so practical as a good theory.” Kurt Lewin American Social Psychologist, 20th Century

    3. Theories of Development

    4. As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses.

    5. Definition of Theory A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions.

    6. Definition of Hypothesis A hypothesis is a specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy.

    7. Why study theories? Enables us to deal meaningfully with large amounts of data – Organize. Enables us to see how different sets of data relate to each other – Compare. Stimulates our curiosity to try to confirm or reject different points of view - Test.

    8. All scientific knowledge comes from scientific investigation – a four-step process Identify a problem to be studied Collect data or research information Analyze the data Draw conclusions

    9. Diverse but complimentary theories are used for explaining life-span development: Psychoanalytic theories Cognitive theories Behavioral and social cognitive theories Ethological theory Ecological theory Contribute your terms, ideas, and “great psychologists” associated with each theory of life-span development.

    10. Reflecting on What You Learned by Applying the Theories to Your Own Development Did you realize there were so many theories, or ways, to view and organize the topics in life-span development? Which of the theories seemed most appealing to you? Why? Which theories seemed too complex or confusing? Too weird? Can you use any of these theories to help you better understand your own or your children’s development? Outline some of your characteristics in the following chart. Place theories that you think are relevant to helping you better understand yourself (or your child) in the right-hand column. You might also make note of any theories that would definitely not help in explaining each part of your development, and why. This exercise should help you stretch your critical and integrative thinking muscles, as well as help you apply text material to your own life in an understandable way. (Remember that this exercise helps you remember complex material for exams!)

    12. Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Personality has 3 parts There are 5 stages of psychosexual development Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent. Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development. Today’s focus is more on cultural experiences and less on sexual instincts.

    14. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: There are 8 stages of psychosocial development. Each has a unique developmental task. Developmental change occurs throughout life span. Key points of psychoanalytic theories: Early experiences and family relationships are very important to development. Unconscious aspects of the mind are considered. Personality is best seen as a developmental process.

    16. Cognitive theories: Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory Stresses conscious mental processes. Cognitive processes are influenced by biological maturation. Four stages of cognitive development in children. Assimilation and accommodation underlie how children understand the world, adapt to it, and organize their experiences.

    17. Assimilation Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge Accommodation Adjusting one’s existing knowledge to new information

    19. Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory Children actively construct their knowledge. Social interaction and culture guide cognitive development. Learning is based upon inventions of society. Knowledge is created through interactions with other people and objects in the culture. Less skilled persons learn from the more skilled. Information-processing theory Compares computers to the human mind. Thinking is information processing.

    20. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    21. Behavioral and social cognitive theories: Pavlov’s classical conditioning includes conditioned and unconditioned responses. Watson applies association and generalization. Skinner’s operant conditioning focuses on positive and negative reinforcement. Bandura’s social cognitive theory focuses on observation and imitation.

    22. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    23. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

    24. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

    25. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    26. Ethological theory stresses that behavior is: Strongly influenced by biology, Is tied to evolution, and Is characterized by critical or sensitive time periods during which the presence or absence of certain experiences has a long-lasting impact. Brought to prominence by Konrad Lorenz, whose work with geese and imprinting provides a framework for considering human attachment.

    27. Definition of Critical Period A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge.

    28. Definition of Imprinting The rapid, innate learning within a limited critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen

    29. Attachment A concept based on principles of ethological theory. Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences: Positive and secure attachment results in positive development. Negative and insecure attachment results in problematic development.

    30. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: Environmental factors influence development. 5 environmental systems affect life-span development. Eclectic theoretical orientation: Selects features from other theories. No one theory has all the answers. Each theory can make a contribution to understanding life-span development.

    31. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    32. Research in Life-Span Development

    33. Types of research: Descriptive: observes and records behavior Laboratory research Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies Life-history records Physiological measures

    34. fMRI Scan of Man’s Brain

    35. Correlational research Measures relationships; not the same as causation Experimental research Independent variable gets manipulated Dependent variable is the resulting change Experimental group is manipulated Control group serves as the “norm” for comparison

    36. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    37. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    38. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    39. Time-span research Focus on the relation of age to some other variable across the life span (e.g., memory) Cross-sectional approach compares different age groups at one time Longitudinal approach studies a group over a period of time Sequential approach combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches Cohort effects: due to time or era of birth but not due to one’s actual age © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    40. Facing Up to Research Challenges

    41. Conducting Ethical Research Informed consent: participants give informed consent and participation is voluntary Confidentiality of participants’ information Participants’ rights will be observed Debriefing after the experiment Deception: researchers ensure any deception will not harm the participants

    42. Minimize bias: Gender bias is based on preconceived ideas about the abilities and differences between men and women; research affects how people think about men and women Cultural and ethnic bias Life-span research needs to include more diverse groups of people Avoid ethnic gloss in research

    43. Being a Wise Consumer of Information Media only publishes parts of research when of public interest. All information for public consumption may be Oversimplified, condensed with few details Distorted or exaggerated. People must consider information carefully. Separate group from individual outcomes. Do not overgeneralize from small sample. Look for additional information on a study. Do not attribute causes when none exist. Evaluate the source of information.

    44. The End

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