Overview

1. Status and Good BehaviourHow Women in Patriarchal Zimbabwe Influence Power HoldersAlix Tiernan & Róisín GallagherChristian Aid/University of Limerick

2. Overview • In rural mining communities in Zimbabwe, women seek to engage with power holders to address their concerns in relation to the mining industry. • Believing that power is not only about “power-over” but also a question of empowerment, or “power-to” (Allen 2011), we analyse the strategies women use to influence decision-makers in their favour. • We will show how women must strike a “patriarchal bargain” (Kandiyoti, 1988) in order to legitimate themselves in the public sphere.

3. Shurugwi Town, south-central Zimbabwe • 20,000 inhabitants • Mining town – gold, chrome, artisanal mining • Positive and negative effects of mining • 12 women – (interviews, FGDs), 4 interviews ZELA staff • How did they raise their concerns on mining issues?

4. Patriarchy and Status • In patriarchal societies1 the status of women affects how much power or influence they can have (Bourdieu 1998, Ridgeway 2010) • Status inequalities can be changed by • reducing gender status beliefs and • reducing the range of contexts in which gender is culturally perceived as sufficiently relevant to measureably shape influence and status (Ridgeway 2010) • This study explored this proposition through a particular case study (10 women, 6 men) 1 Zimbabwean culture is strongly patriarchal (Matambirofa 2014)

5. Understanding power • Power: Essentially, it is the capacity of one actor to affect another, with or without the consent of others • Often used in development theory, but originally a political concept • Steven Lukes (1974, 2005) used 3 dimensions of power to describe aspects of a political process, but recognises (in 3rd dimension) the power to change the wishes of actors not necessarily through domination but by influencing other actors to act in your interest • Feminist interpretation (Miller 1992, Allen 1998) focuses on the process of achieving an end, rather than the intent: • Miller (1992): power is the capacity to produce a change, possibly while enhancing, rather than diminishing, the power of any involved actors

6. Forms of power • Amy Allen (1998) describes 3 forms of power1 • Power over: ability of actor to constrain the choices available to another actor • Power to: capacity of an agent to act in spite of or in response to power wield over her by others (also known as empowerment) • Power with: ability of a collectivity to act together for the attainment of a common end • For this study, power to was the most useful because it links most usefully with the concept of influence – an exercise of power, but not the possession of power (Morriss 2002) 1 Development theory has added a fourth – power within (VeneKlasen and Miller 2002, Chambers 2006, Domingo et al. 2015)]

7. Examples of influence as described in case study

9. What gives women status

10. Good Behaviour Zimbabwean culture expects good moral values at all times. E.g. giving due respect to other people, especially one’s parents; cordial reception of visitors and strangers, the elderly; and doing good to others and for children; “good behaviour” or ubuntu (Matambirofa, 2013)

11. Good Behaviour • Women have to be above reproach in terms of sexual conduct, if they were to have status in the public sphere • By complying with expected social norms, they were earning the right to participate in public decision-making fora • Women negotiate power by managing their behaviour so that “the outcome is seen … in context as gender appropriate – that is, accountable”, called ‘doing gender’ (West and Zimmerman 2002) • Women are striking a “patriarchal bargain” (Kandiyoti 1988) in order to increase their effectiveness of their agency, but they are not challenging or transforming the restrictive aspects of patriarchal rules and norms (Kabeer 2005)

12. Implications for programming • “We do these workshops on gender based violence and empowerment, [but] when we go back into the community, we abide by the patriarchal authority.” (woman interviewed) • Recommendation from this study: place more emphasis on understanding the behavioural accountability mechanisms such as “good behaviour” and “doing gender”, rather than assuming that empowerment is simply a transfer of power from power holders to the powerless

13. References • Allen, A. (1998) ‘Rethinking power’, Hypatia, 13(1) 21-40. • Allen, A. (2011) ‘Feminist perspectives on power’, in Zalta, E.N. ed., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition) [online] • Chambers, R. (2006) Transforming Power: From Zero-Sum to Win-Win? IDS Bulletin Vol. 37 No. 6 November 2006, Institute of Development Studies • Domingo, P., Holmes, R., O’Neil, T., Jones, N., Bird, K. Larson, A., Presler-Marshall, E., and Valters, C. (2015) women’s Voice and Leadership in Decision-making: assessing the evidence. London: ODI. • Kabeer, N. (2005) “Gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis fo the third Millennium Development Goal” gender and Development Vol 13, No. 1: 13-24. • Matambirofa, F. (2013) ‘Diaspora, cultural disintegration and underdevelopment: the case of Zimbabwe’, in Sahoo, S. and Pattannaik, B.K., eds., Global Diasporas and Development: Socioeconomic, Cultural and Policy Perspectives, India: springer Science and Business Media, 249-265. • Miller, J.B. (1992) ‘Women and power’, in Wartenberg, T., ed., Rethinking Power, Albany: SUNY Press. • Morriss, P. (2002) Power: A Philosophical Analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press. • Kandiyoti, D. (1988) ‘Bargaining with patriarchy’, Gender and Society, 2(3), 274-290. • VeneKlasen, L. and Miller, V. (2002) a New Weave of Power, People and Politics: the Action Guide for Advocacy and Citizen Participation, Oklahoma city: world Neighbours. • West, C. and Zimmerman, D. (1985) “Doing Gender”, republished in: S. Fenstermaker and C. West, Eds. (2002) Doing Gender, Doing Difference: Inequality, Power and Institutional Change. New York: Routledge.