T opic 1 – 英語科教育 Education-related Theorists

1. Topic 1– 英語科教育 Education-related Theorists • Who dares to teach must never cease to learn. • John Cotton Dana

2. Tony’s 5 GURUs & their importance to Education JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934) JEROME BRUNER (1915-2016) BF SKINNER (1904-1990) BENJAMIN BLOOM (1913-1999)

3. JEAN PIAGET Swiss Cognitive Psychologist (NATURE) theory of Cognitive Development learning is dependent upon a child's cognitive development. i.e. learning comes AFTER cognitive development

4. Three Basic Components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory • 1. SCHEMAs • = Mental models of things in our world • E.g. How do you buy a meal in a restaurant? • 2. ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION • = the use of or adaptation of schemas to fit our world • E.g. A child sees a ‘horse’ and calls it a ‘dog’ • E.g. A child sees a ‘horse’ and calls it a ‘horse’ • 3. STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • (next slide)

5. Intelligence/Cognition develops in 4 different stages • (a) Sensorimotorstage (birth to 2 years old) • (b) Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years old) • (c)Concrete Operationalstage (7 to 10 years old) • (d) Formal Operationalstage (11 years old and up)

6. LEV VYGOTSKY Soviet Developmental Psychologist/Constructivist Sociocultural Approach to Cognitive Development NURTURE theory of Sociocultural Development learning is dependent upon the child's social development. i.e. social learning comes BEFORE cognitive development

7. Two Basic Components to Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Development • 1. MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER • = someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner with regard to a particular task, process or concept. • 2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) • = the gap between what a child CAN DO independently & what a child CAN’T DO • ‘Mind the gap’

8. Fundamental Role of SOCIAL INTERACTION in Cognitive Development • Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development. • Children and their partners (peers, parents, teachers) CO-CONSTRUCT knowledge. • The ENVIRONMENT in which a child grows up will influence how they think and what they think about. • ELEMENTARY MENTAL FUNCTIONS (attention, sensation, perception, memory) develop into more sophisticated HIGHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS

9. The TEACHER'S JOB IS CAN'T DO to ASSIST learners through the Zone of Proximal Development 最近接発達領域 さいきんせつはったつりょういき ZPD TEACHER'S JOB CAN DO CAN'T DO ZPD TEACHER'S JOB CAN DO CAN'T DOできないこと HOW? ZPD TEACHER'S JOB 教師の指導や援助のもとで可能な問題解決の水準 CAN DO 一人でできる

10. JEROME BRUNER American Developmental Psychologist/cognitive learning theory theory of Cognitive Development learning is dependent upon an individual's development of autonomy* i.e. *learning how to learn

11. Three Basic Stages to Cognitive Development • 1. ENACTIVE (0 to 1 years) • = action-based information & storing it in memory • E.g. movement in muscle memory. An infant will still ‘shake’ a rattle even after he has dropped it. • 2. ICONIC (1 to 6 years old) • = Mental images of information/things in our world • E.g. A child knows what a ‘dog’ is but can’t verbalize it accurately. • 3. SYMBOLIC (7 years old & up) • = Mental images of information/things in our world are stored in memory as a code or symbol • E.g. A child knows what the class ‘dog’ is, can verbalize it, can manipulate it, order it, classify it

12. Like John Dewey (1859-1952), Bruner believes the fundamental purpose of EDUCATION is to create learners who know how to learn • Purpose of education is to facilitate a child’s THINKING SKILLS and PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS which can be transferred to a range of situations. • A learner at any age is capable of learning anything so long as the instruction/knowledge is organized appropriately. (spiral curriculum that isscaffolded– complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then revisited at more complex levels later on) • Children are ACTIVE LEARNERS who construct their own knowledge (Discovery & Inquiry Learning). Purpose of education is NOT to impart KNOWLEDGE but to facilitate how to learn.

13. BF Skinner American Behavioral Psychologist theory of Operant Conditioning learning is dependent upon the formation of good habits through a three-step process of stimulus ➝ response ➝reinforcement.

14. REINFORCEMENT • It is possible to change behavior by the use of REINFORCEMENT which is given AFTER the desired response. • 1. NEUTRAL operants: responses that neither decrease or increase the probability of a behavior being repeated • 2. REINFORCERS: responses that INCREASE the probability of a behavior being repeated* • 3. PUNISHERS: responses that DECREASE the probability of a behavior being repeated

15. #2: REINFORCERS • POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = additionofapositivestimulusin order to getarepetitionofapositivebehavior.E.g. Praising achild or giving the student a ‘star’ for doing a good jobgives them a ‘reward’ for good behavior thus increasing the likelihood that they will repeat what they did. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = removal of a negative stimulus in order tostop or avoid an unwantedoutcomecan also ‘reward’ a child thus increasing the likelihood that they will repeat thepositive behavior. E.g. the teacher notices an issue with relations among two students so she seats them away from each other.

16. POSITIVEREINFORCEMENT 1. After scoring a basket (the behavior) during practice, the coach shouts out “Great job” (addition of a positive stimulus). 2. At school, youbecomeinterestedinatopicandyouwriteapaperinyourfreetime(the behavior) about what you learned. The teacher gives you extra credit points(addition of a positive stimulus)for what you did. 3. At work, you calm an angry customer (the behavior) and your boss gives you extra hours when you ask for them (addition of a positive stimulus). BUT 4.Achildmisbehavesinastore(the behavior).Theparentgiveshimacandy(addition of a positive stimulus)tomakehimquietdownandbecalm. Whatistheproblemhere? Because PR is the additionof a positive stimulus/conditionto strengthen a behavior, the childwill then continue to misbehaveinstoressohe/shecangetcandy..

17. NEGATIVEREINFORCEMENT • 1. Before a day at the beach you put on sunscreen (the behavior) in order to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the negative stimulus) • 2. You decide to clean your room sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid an argument with your parents(removal of the negative stimulus) • 3. On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the behavior) in order to avoid having to stand up on the train (removal of the negative stimulus) on the way to school. BUT • 4. At school, a child refuses to do the homework(the behavior). The teacher tells the child he doesn’t have to do it (removal of the negative stimulus). Whatistheproblemhere? Because NR is the removal of a negative stimulus to strengthen a behavior, the student will then continue to not do homework.

18. PUNISHMENT • Definition Whensomething that imposes a negativestimulus/condition on the receiverisaddedorappliedasaresultofnegativebehavior. • E.g. Taro is supposed to clean his room every Saturday morning. Last weekend he went out to play with his friend without cleaning his room. As a result, his father made him spend the rest of the weekend doing other chores such as cleaning the garage, weeding the garden and staying indoors. Difference between punishment and NR • Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative stimulus/condition in order to strengthen a behavior. • Punishment adding or taking away a stimulus to weaken a behavior.

19. BENJAMIN BLOOM American Educational psychologist / Cognitive Development theory of Psychological Development (cognitive, affective, sensory) learning is dependent upon development of mastery over a range of cognitive, affective & psychomotor skills

20. Three Basic Components to the Bloom committee’s Model of Educational Objectives • 1. COGNITIVE DOMAIN (knowledge-based)✻ • = skills that describe the way people think about knowledge • 2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (emotive-based) • = skills that describe the way people react emotionally • They target the growth in attitude, emotion & feelings • 3. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (action-based) • = skills that describe the ability to physically manipulate their own physical senses, a tool or instrument.

21. Cognitive Domain (knowledge-based) used to set educational objectives • ORIGINAL (1949-1953) REVISED (2001) • lower order thinking skills (LOTS) • 1. REMEMBERING REMEMBER • 2. COMPREHENDING UNDERSTAND • 3. APPLYING APPLY • Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) • 4. ANALYZING ANALYZE • 5. SYNTHESIZING EVALUATE • 6. EVALUATING CREATE

23. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS) Primary goal 1: REMEMBERING /KNOWLEDGE (The student acts like a dictionary or an internet database to find information, facts, & data. He/she also recognizes and recalls relevant knowledge from textualinformationorlong-term memory)

24. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS) Primary goal 2: UNDERSTANDING/ COMPREHENSION • (The student acts like an 'expert' and understandsandinterprets (makessenseof)themeaning ofinformationincludingoral,written&graphiccommunication)

25. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS) Primary goal 3: APPLYING/ APPLICATION (The student acts like a 'How To' manual, and selects and usesapreviously learned procedureorinformationinanewbutsimilarsituation)

26. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS) Primary goal 4: ANALYZING/ANALYSIS (The student acts like a sorting tray and breaksinformationintoitspartsandexploreshowthepartsrelatetooneanother and to an overall structure or purpose)

27. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS) Primary goal 5: EVALUATING/EVALUATION (The student acts like a judge in a court & criticallyexaminesinformationandmakesjudgmentsbasedonevidence, criteriaandstandards)

28. Bloom‘sTaxonomyofverbs: HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS) Primary goal 6:CREATING/SYNTHESIS (The student acts like Thomas Edison, improving, designing, planning and puttingelements or informationtogethertocreatesomethingnew)