Two uses of sea: 海洋的兩個用途： 1. Communications 交通 2. Resources (fish, oil, etc.) 資源 ﹝ 魚產、石油等 ﹞

1. Law of the Sea, Air and Outer Space 海洋、航空和太空法律 Two uses of sea: 海洋的兩個用途： 1. Communications 交通 2. Resources (fish, oil, etc.) 資源﹝魚產、石油等﹞ Early European colonialist claimed sea as territory 初時歐洲殖民者聲稱海洋是領土

2. Grotius said seas are res communis (common thing) of humanityGrotius說海洋是人類的共有財産Spoke of “freedom of sea”: unrestricted navigation, fishery and scientific research有說「海洋自由」: 無限制的航海、捕漁和科学探索

3. Today also includes “freedom ofimmersion,” i.e. right to lay submarine cables & oil pipelines今日還包括「內載自由」，即舖設海底電纜和油管Main restriction on freedom of seas is that vessels are subject to jurisdiction of flag state海洋自由的主要限制是指船艦的管轄權是根據其所懸掛的國旗而定No ship may bear state‘s flag without its permission沒有船只可在沒有國家的許可情況下懸掛該國的國旗Should be “genuine link” between flag state and ship國旗與船應是「真正關聯」的States now proclaim parts of seas as their “maritime belts” or territorial seas現在國家宣稱部分海洋是其“領海帶”或領海

4. Internal waters have connection with land territory, e.g. harbours, lakes, rivers, etc.內海與國界是有聯繫的，例如港灣、湖泊、河流等No right of innocent passage through internal waters在內水不適用無害通過權Question of whether bays are internal waters is much disputed海灣是不是內海是很有爭議性的問題State may draw straight line across mouth of bay to seal it off where bay entrance not more than 24 miles國家可能在海灣口畫不長於24公里的直線，以劃出海灣Where bay is "historic," state may enclose all of it當海灣是「歷史性」時，國家便可把它整個佔有

5. Question of internal waters also important concerning archipelagos內海問題對於群島也是十分重要的Dealt with in detail in UN Law of the Sea Convention (signed 1982; came into force 1994)詳細見於《聯合國海洋法公約》﹝簽定於1982年，於1994年生效﹞Territorial seas that are not internal arealso part of states that they border領海並非內海，但也是國家的範圍Bynkershock in 1702 said states owned seas off their shores to a distance of cannon shot, i.e. 3 milesBynkershock於1702年表示國家擁有離岸至一定大炮射程的海域，即三英里

6. Under 1982 Convention, state can claim 12 mile territorial sea, from baseline at low-water mark依1982年的公約，國家可以宣稱擁由低潮點開始至外有十二英里的領海範圍In some places, 12 mile limit makes open sea disappear, e.g. English Channel, Bosporus有一些地方 ，十二英里的距离令公海消失，例如英倫海峽和博斯普魯斯海峽Transit passage allows ships to pass through such channels運輸航道可使船隻通過這些海峽

7. English Channel

8. Where state‘s coastline indented or many islands, hard to set 12 mile limit, e.g. in Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case (1951)當國家海岸線呈踞齒形或有很多離島時，便難於設定十二英里限制，例如1951年的英國挪威漁業案﹝1951﹞Norway used straight baselines linking outermost parts of its coastal islands挪威用直基線聯起沿岸島嶼的最外部分Enclosed much of what would have been high seas; UK objected；ICJ upheld Norway’s method on basis of realism and simplicity包括了許多以前的公海部分；英國反對；國際法院出於現實主義和簡約的考虑，認為挪威的方法

9. Norwegian coastline

10. Coastal states also may claim contiguous zones: waters beyond territorial seas where state may enforce customs, tax, immigration, sanitary laws沿海國家可宣稱有毗連區：領海以外國家執行關稅、稅項、移民、衛生法律的区域Contiguous zones may extend to point 24 miles from low water mark of littoral state毗連區可伸展自沿海岸的低潮點起二十四英里的地方Beyond contiguous zones, there are exclusive economic zones (EEZ‘s)毗連區以外有專屬經濟區Up to 200 miles from baseline; mainly used to protect fishing and to claim undersea mineral resources基線二百公里以內，主要用來保護捕漁業和海底礦物資源

11. About half of world‘s states claim EEZs.大約世界上一半的國家宣稱擁有專屬經濟區Historically, some rights in high seas exist由于历史原因，有些公海權利存在Examples:例如：1. belligerent state may board on high seas neutral state vessel carrying goods to enemy一、如果公海中立國船隻载有運给敵人的货物，交戰國可能就可能占领2. jurisdiction of injured state over foreign vessel that does injury on high seas二、如果一国的船隻在公海受到損害，受損國拥有管轄權

12. Some states claim that they can exercise jurisdiction outside maritime belt over vessels that are threat to sovereignty or security有些國家要求向領海以外危害主權或安全的船艦行使管轄權Examples: US and Haitian refugees；Canada and Spanish fishing fleet例如：美國和海地難民；加拿大和西班牙捕漁船隊Also movement of less developed states to proclaim seabed of high seas "common heritage of humanity"同時，發展中國家也有提倡公海海床是「人類共有的遺產」

13. Developed states have sought free development of seabed發達國家曾試求自由开發海床Under 1982 Convention, there are rights to exploit continental shelf, ledge that extends from land into sea at shallow depths依1982年的公約，有權開發大陸架和淺水区陸地伸展到海洋的暗礁Continental shelves make up 7-8% of ocean areas大陸架 組成百分之七至八的海洋部分Under 1982 Convention, some exploitation of continental shelf beyond 200 mile limit is OK據1982年的公約，超出大陸架约二百英里以外的開發是可以接受的

14. Developed states have sought free development of seabed

15. In deep seabed there is much manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt在海床深處有大量錳、銅、鎳、鈷If these are mined by developed countries, then poorer countries will lose market share如果它們由發達國家開採，貧窮國家便會失去市場份額Under 1982 Convention, there is International Seabed Authority據1982年的公約，設立了「國際海床当局」Supposed to provide equitable sharing of benefits of seabed假設它会公平分配海床的利益

16. development of seabed

17. One area of seabed is to be set aside for commercial exploitation海床的一部分被界定給商業開發Another area is to be property of Seabed Authority itself另一部分則属于國際海床当局There is also issue of preserving maritime environment. Many specific treaties保存海洋環境亦是另一問題。有許多具體條約Under 1982 Convention, states must ensure that their courts can be used to provide relief for persons damaged by pollution of sea environment在1982年公約之下，國家必須確保法院可向受到海洋環境污染影響的人士提供援助

18. Law of the air, like law of the sea, concerned with state sovereignty像海洋法一样，空間法和國家的主權有關When manned flight appeared, states disagreed about who owned superjacent air自人類的航空旅程出現，國家便對上空的擁有權爭議不休French view: freedom of the air法國的觀點：天空的自由British view: rule usque ad coelum (“use to heaven”) of air rights英國的觀點：由絕對土地權利衍生的空間權利

19. British view confirmed in World War I because of need to protect against bombing英國人的觀點在第一次世界大戰中被確認，因為有預防空襲的需要Basic rule became that aircraft may only cross state‘s airspace with its permission基本規則成为航空器只有獲得某國許可才能飛越其領空Paris Convention of 1919 modified this rule slightly 1919年《巴黎公約》略改了這規則aircraft not part of scheduled service have right of innocent passage若不是定期航班，航空器擁有無害通過權

20. Convention provided for aircraft registration, certificates of airworthiness, aircrew licenses, rules of traffic control公約规定了航空器登記、適航證書、空勤人員執照、交通控制規例1929 Warsaw Convention on International Carriage by Air set up limits of civil liability for death or injury of passengers 1929年《華沙國際空運公約》設有乘客傷亡民事賠償的規限Airline not liable if it has taken all measures needed to avoid damage航空公司若已採取所有防止損害的措施，它便不需要負責1944 Civil Aviation Conference called by US to obtain transcontinental landing rights1944年，美國召開民航會議，要求獲得跨大陸登陸權

21. US wanted “5 freedoms”美國想获得五項自由1. to fly across foreign territory飛越外國領土2. to land for non-traffic purposes以非交通事由登陸3. to disembark in foreign country, traffic picked up in home country本國登航，外國卸載4. to pick up in foreign country, traffic destined for home country外國登航，本國卸載5. to carry traffic between two foreign countries.交通往返於兩外國

22. Most states agreed only to first two and signed International Air Services Transit Agreement.大部分國家只同意前兩項，並且簽定《國際航空交通服務運輸協定》Few states embodied all 5 freedoms in Air Transport Agreement少部分國家在《空運協定》中使五項自由具體化1944 Conference drew up treaty covering air law, operations codes, rules for personnel, health and safety 1944年會議訂出有關航空法、執行手則、人事規則和健康安全手則的條約Also set up International Civil Aviation Organization, UN agency另外設立「國際民航組織」，一個隸屬聯合國的組織

23. Concentrates on air safety專注於航空安全International Air Transport Association (IATC) is organization of world‘s airlines.「國際航空運輸協會」是全球航運公司的組織Concentrates on setting fares專注於釐定費用1944 Conference decided that air cabotage or internal air traffic may be reserved to each state1944年會議決定國內空運權由各國保留

24. State aircraft have no right to fly over or land in territory of any other state.國家航空器無權飛越或登陸另一國家的領土States must not discriminate among other states in right to use airspace眾國在使用領空的權利上不可有差別地對待其它國家1944 Conference failed to settle many questions; still no multilateral agreement on air rights1944年會議未能解決很多問題；至今仍無有關空間權利的多邊條約Many bilateral agreements between states. Model is 1946 Bermuda Agreement between US and UK各國之間有許多雙邊協定。美國和英國之間的1946年《百慕達協定》便是一個模範

25. Bilateral agreements generally involve negotiations about the other three freedoms雙邊協定一般涉及其他三項自由的磋商Many other problems remain, including hijaking, downing of civilian aircraft很多其他的問題仍在，包括劫機、民航客機坠落Besides aircraft traffic, law of air deals with other air-related subjects除了航空交通，空間法還處理其他空間事宜Every state may prevent its airspace from being traversed by injurious radio or TV waves各國防止損害性的電波或電視微波通過其領空

26. Every state must prevent its territory from being used to transmit waves that injure others各國必須防止其領土被利用作發送傷害其他國家的電波States have sought ban testing of nuclear weapons in atmosphere through Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963眾國已透過1963年《全面禁止核子試驗條約》要求禁止在大氣層中進行核武試驗No treaties about rain-making無關於造雨的條約Problem of radiation drift輻射擴散問題

27. Problem of release of chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) creating “greenhouse effect” endangering ozone layerCFCs 排放的问题，造成「溫室效應」，損害臭氧層1985 Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer aimed to reduce consumption of CFCs 1985年《保護臭氧層維也納公約》旨在減少CFCs的使用Idea of International Law of Atmosphere treaty, modelled after Law of the Sea Convention of 1982《國際大氣層法條約》的觀念，根據1982年《聯合國海洋法公約》之模式Law of outerspace modifies rule of usque ad coelum: airspace is not property of state to unlimited height外層空間法修改了絕對所有權論點：空間不是無高度限制的國家财產

28. Greenhouse effect

29. Sovereignty of states over airspace limited to point where air meets space. Question is where boundary lies國家對領空的主權範圍是到大氣層與太空連接之處。問題是範圍是怎樣界定的Some thought it was as low as 50 miles, but aircraft can fly that high有人認為應低至五十英里，但航空器能夠在這高度飛行Satellites can orbit as low as 110kilometers, so scholars now think that might be right limit衛星可在低至110千米高的軌道運行，所以學者現在認為這可能是適當的限制States don't want to concede such a low limit, so notreaty眾國不想接受這麼低的限制，所以沒有簽約

30. Outer space is res communis and may be explored by all外層空間是共有財産，全部人均可開發1967 Outer Space Treaty provides that states may not orbit or station in outer space nuclear or other weapons of mass destruction 1967年的《 外層空間條例》提出國家不可在外層空間放置核武或其他大規模殺傷性武器Some scholars argue that this treaty bans all military activity in space.有些學者認為這條約禁止所有的太空軍事活動

31. US argued that its “Star Wars” program of the 1980s was legal because it included only anti-ballistic missle system美國爭辯說1980年的「星球大戰」計劃是合法的，因為它只是包括反彈道導彈系統1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects1972年《空間實體造成損失的國際責任公約》States strictly liable for any damage from their space objects that strike the Earth or aircraft國家對它們任何的空間實體擊中地球或航空器所造成的損害負嚴格責任Fault liability as to all other damage, e.g. to other space objects對其他所有損害負過錯責任，比如損害其他太空實體

32. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space《關於登記射入外太空物體的公約》UN receives data on all spacecraft聯合國有关于所有太空船的資料Agreement on Rescue of Astronauts《拯救太空人協定》1979 Moon Treaty bans military personnel from Moon and other celestial bodies for non-peaceful purposes 1979年《月球條約》禁止軍人爲非和平目的抵達月球或者其他天體No rights of private ownership over moon or its resources不存在對月球或其資源的私有權

33. spacecraft

34. spacecraft

35. Many international telecommunications satellite (INTELSAT) agreements有很多國際性電訊衛星通訊的協議Implemented by International Telecommunications Union, but much work done by US COMSAT corporation是由「國際電訊聯盟」執行，但是大部分工作都是美國通訊衛星公司所做的Disputes about allocation of radio wave frequencies and broadcasts, via satellite, to unwilling states對電台通過衛星的微波頻道和傳播有爭議，因為有的國家不願意UN has Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.聯合國設有「和平利用外層空間委員會」

36. UNESCO has adopted 1972 Declaration that states must obtain prior consent to broadcast from satellites to other states聯合國教科文組織通過了1972年的聲明，一國的衛星傳播到其他國家前必須获得同意In 1983, in “Principles,” UNESCO tried to implement Declaration. Most Western states voted against1983年，原則上，聯合國教科文組織嘗試執行聲明。大部分西方國家投票反對Remote sensing also controversial.Question is whether prior consent of observed state is required遙距感應也有爭議。問題在於是否需要获得被觀察國家的事前同意

37. Some states, e.g. France, also argue that states should not be required to share data gathered by satellite有些國家，例如法國，認為不應要求各國分享由衛星得來的資料US argues that there should be freedom of information美國爭辯說應有資訊自由Controversy over geostationary orbit, where satellites circle at same speed as Earth‘s rotation對同步軌道有爭議，究竟衛星轉動的速度應否與地球的相同。Equatorial states in Bogota Declaration of 1975 claimed geostationary orbit as part of their territory赤道國家在1975年《波哥大宣言》中聲稱同步軌道是其領土的一部分

38. geostationary orbit