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Engineering Basic Notes

Engineering Basic Notes

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Engineering Basic Notes

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  1. 1 | P a g e ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION BASIC NOTES Written & Composed BY SAQIB IMRAN Written & Composed BY SAQIB IMRAN Cell Cell & WHATSAPP & WHATSAPP no: 0341 no: 0341- -7549889 Email: Email: saqibimran43@gmail.com saqibimran43@gmail.com BS.TECH(CIVIL) BS.TECH(CIVIL) From From SARHAD UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & SARHAD UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PESHAWER INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PESHAWER. . 7549889 SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 1

  2. 2 | P a g e S.NO TOPICS 1 BRICKS 2 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 3 BUILDING MATERIALS 4 CEMENT 5 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS 6 FOUNDATIONS, DAMS & ART DESIGN 7 IS CODES PAGE NO 3 26 41 62 71 101 123 SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 2

  3. 3 | P a g e BRICKS A brick is a small man-made rectangular block typically made of fired and sun- dried clay, used to make wall. Bricks are mostly made of clay. In India, the standard size of brick as recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards IS: 2691:1988 is 190 x 90 x 90 mm. IS Code also states that with mortar thickness added the brick size shall be 200 x 100 x 100 mm. Quality of Good Bricks- 1- The brick should be table mounted, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright. 2- The brick should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size. 3- The brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other. 4- The brick should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class brick and 22 percent for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24 hours. 5- The brick when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact structure free from voids. 6- The brick should not break in to pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one metre. 7- The brick should be sufficient hard. No impression should be left on brick surface when it is scratched with finger nail. 8- No brick should have the crushing strength below 105kg/cm2. 9- The brick should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof. 10-The brick when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 3

  4. 4 | P a g e TERMS USED IN BRICK MASONRY WORK 1. COURSE: A horizontal layer of similar bricks or stones that are bonded with mortar is known as course. 2. QUOINS: Quoins are the stones used for the corners of the walls. 3. BED: The horizontal layer of mortar where brick or stone units are laid is known as bed. 4. BACK: The inner surface of a brick wall which is not exposed termed as back. The material forming back is known as backing. 5. FACE: The exterior surface of a brick wall which is exposed to weather termed as face. The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing. 6. HEARTING: The interior portion of a wall between the facing and backing is termed as hearting. 7. JOINT: The junction of two or more bricks or stones is called joint. There are eight types of mortar joints- SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 4

  5. 5 | P a g e 1. Concave 2. Vee 3. Flush 4. Raked 5. Extruded 6. Beaded 7. Struck 8. Weathered 8. HEADER: The shorter side or end face of a brick that is exposed is termed as header. 9. STRETCHER: The longer narrow side or face of a brick that is exposed is termed as stretcher. 10. FROG: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 5

  6. 6 | P a g e An indentation or depression on the top face of the brick made with the object of forming a key for the mortar is termed as frog. The depth of frog is usually between 10-20 mm. 11. BOND: This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied together. 12. ARRIS: The sharp corner edges of brick is known as arris. 13. SPALLS: Spalls are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry. 14. BAT: The portion of bricks cut across the width is termed as bat. Three Quarter Bat: It is the form of brick bat having its length equal to three quarter of length of a full bricks. Half Bat: If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the full bricks. Bevelled Bat: A brick bat is called bevelled bat when its width has bevelled. 15. CLOSER: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 6

  7. 7 | P a g e Closer is the small piece of brick cut lengthwise in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut and used at the end of masonry wall to maintain bond pattern. 16. QUEEN CLOSER: When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal pieces then it is called queen closer. 17: QUEEN CLOSER QUARTER: When a queen closer is cut in to two equal pieces then it is called as queen closer quarter. 18. KING CLOSER: King closer are the portion of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between center of one end and the center of one side. 19. BEVELLED CLOSER: Similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick bevelled for maintaining the half width at one end and full width at the other. 20. MITRED CLOSER: It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of splay vary from 45 to 60 degree. 21. ROWLOCK: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 7

  8. 8 | P a g e The head is visible and the long narrow sides are on bottom and top. 22. ROWLOCK STRETCHER: When the thinner stretcher sides are on bottom and top faces on the sides. 23. SAILOR: The heads are on top and bottom and the stretcher faces are on the side. Mostly used for decoration. 24. SOLDIER: The stretcher side is visible and the heads are at the bottom and top. It is usually used for decoration. 25. BUTTERING: Placing of mortar in on masonry block with trowel is termed as buttering. COLOURS OF BRICKS The colours of bricks as obtained in its natural course of manufacture depend on the following factors. Degree of dryness achieved before burning Natural colour of clay and its chemical composition Nature of sand used in moulding operation Quality of fuel used in burning operation Quantity of air admitted to the kiln during burning SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 8

  9. 9 | P a g e Temperature at which bricks are brunt COLOURS OF BRICKS No. 1 Colour Black Constituents Present in Clay Manganese and large proportion of iron Alkalies Large amount of iron oxide 2 3 Bluish Green Bright red, dark blue or purple Brown Cream Red White Yellow 4 5 6 7 8 Lime in excess Iron and little lime Iron in excess Pure clay Iron and magnesia The artificial colouring of bricks is achieved by adopting one of the following two methods 1.Addition of colouring material 2.Dipping in colouring liquid 1. Addition of Colouring Material: In this method the required colouring material is added in brick earth. The bricks prepared from such earth will present the desired colour. The usual colouring materials are iron oxides, manganese, French ultramarine, Indian red etc. This method is adopted when the colouring material is cheap and when it is available in plenty. 2. Dipping in Colouring Liquid: In this method an earthenware box which is slightly larger each way than a common bricks is taken. It is filled nearly to 1/2 depth with liquid which is in the form of thick paste. The bricks to be coloured are placed on an iron plate and with a fire underneath they are heated to such an extent that they can be easily handled. One brick is taken at a time and it is allowed to stay for few seconds in the box. It is then placed aside to dry. The colouring liquid is formed by the addition of colouring material to a mixture of lineseed oil, litharge and turpentine. The proportion of various component of colouring liquid for different colours. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 9

  10. 10 | P a g e COLOURING LIQUID Name of the Colour Black 1.20 N 0.60 N 1.80 N 1.80 N Component Blue 570 c.c. 0.15 N 570 c.c. - 4.50 N - - Dark red 850 c.c. 1.15 N 850 c.c. - - 0.15 N - Grey 0.60 N 0.30 N 1.20 N 0.30 N - - 0.90 N Lineseed oil Lintharge Turpentine Manganese French ultramarine - Indian red White lead - - Following are the advantage of this method- 1.The bricks which are coloured by this method do not lose their colours, when exposed to the atmosphere. 2.It can be adopted for expensive colours 3.It is possible to develop a variety of colours cheaply and easily 4.The penetration of colouring liquid in ordinary bricks ia adbout 3 mm or so. 5.This method can be used for brick wall which are already constructed. The wall surface is carefully cleaned. The colouring liquid is slightly heated and it is applied on the wall surface with a brush. SIZE, WEIGHT AND FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF BRICKS SIZE AND WEIGHT OF BRICKS The bricks are prepared in various sizes. The custom in the locality is the governing factor for deciding the size of a brick. Such bricks are not standardized are known as the traditional bricks. It bricks are large it is difficult to burn them properly and they become too heavy to be placed with a single hand. On the other hand if bricks are small more quantity of mortar is required. For India a brick of standard size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm is recommended by BIS. With mortar thickness the size of such a brick becomes 20 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm and it is known as the nominal size of the modular bricks. Thus the nominal size of brick includes the mortar thickness. It is found that the weight of 1 m3 of brick earth is about 18 KN. Hence the average weight of a brick will be about 30 to 35 N. FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF BRICKS SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 10

  11. 11 | P a g e Following factors affect the quality of bricks- Composition of brick earth Preparation of clay and blending of ingredient Nature of moulding adopted Care taken in drying and stacking of raw or green bricks Types of kiln used including type of fuel and its feeding Burning and cooling processes Care taken in including It is thus obvious that not only the bricks of different brick fields will have different strength, but in the same brick field, the bricks of the same batch may have different strengths. The average crushing strength and tensile strength of hand moulded bricks are 60000 KN/m2 and 2000 KN/m2 respectively. In practice however the bricks are not subjected to the tensile stresses. It may be noted that the strength of brickwork mainly depends on the types of mortar used and not so much on the individual strength of the bricks. DIFFERENT CUTS AND ORIENTATIONS OF BRICKS USED IN CONSTRUCTION 1. BRICK ORIENTATION: (i). HEADER: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 11

  12. 12 | P a g e The shorter side or end face of a brick that is exposed is termed as header. (ii). STRETCHER: The longer narrow side or face of a brick that is exposed is termed as stretcher. (iii). ROWLOCK: The head is visible and the long narrow sides are on bottom and top. (iv). ROWLOCK STRETCHER: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 12

  13. 13 | P a g e When the thinner stretcher sides are on bottom and top faces on the sides. (v). SAILOR: The heads are on top and bottom and the stretcher faces are on the side. Mostly used for decoration. (vi). SOLDIER: The stretcher side is visible and the heads are at the bottom and top. It is usually used for decoration. 2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK CUTS 1. CLOSER: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 13

  14. 14 | P a g e Closer is the small piece of brick cut lengthwise in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut and used at the end of masonry wall to maintain bond pattern. (i). QUEEN CLOSER (HALF): When a brick is cut along its length, making it two equal pieces then it is called queen closer. (ii). QUEEN CLOSER (QUARTER): When a queen closer is cut in to two equal pieces then it is called as queen closer quarter. (iii). KING CLOSER: King closer are the portion of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between center of one end and the center of one side. (iv). BEVELLED CLOSER: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 14

  15. 15 | P a g e Similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick bevelled for maintaining the half width at one end and full width at the other. (v). MITRED CLOSER: It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of splay vary from 45 to 60 degree. 2. BAT: The portion of bricks cut across the width is termed as bat. (i). THREE QUARTER BAT: It is the form of brick bat having its length equal to three quarter of length of a full bricks. (ii). HALF BAT: If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the full bricks. (iii). BEVELED BAT: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 15

  16. 16 | P a g e A brick bat is called beveled bat when its width has beveled. TYPES OF BRICK BONDS Most commonly used brick bonds are- 1.Header Bond 2.Stretcher Bond 3.English Bond 4.Flemish Bond 1. HEADER BOND: In this type of bonding all the bricks are laid as headers on the faces. This bond permit better alignment and it is used for wall curved on plan. The overlap is half the width of the brick and can be achieved by providing a three quarter bat in each alternate course at quoins. 2. STRETCHER BOND: Stretcher bond is the simplest type of brick bond in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers on the faces. This bond is also called as running bond. In this bond no header is present hence suitable reinforcement always be provided for construction of structural bond. The overlap between the bricks is usually a third SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 16

  17. 17 | P a g e or a quarter of a brick instead of half of a brick. This type of bond not particularly strong. 3. ENGLISH BOND: English bond consist of alternate course of header and stretchers. In this English bond arrangement vertical joints in the header courses come over each other and the vertical joints in the stretchers course are also in the same line. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive course it is essential to place queen closer after first header in each heading course. The following additional points should be noted in English bond construction- 1.In this English bond a heading course should never start with a queen closer as it is liable to get displaced in this position. 2.In the stretcher course the stretchers should have a minimum lap of 1/4th their length over the header. 3.Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks i.e. one brick thick wall, two brick thick wall, three brick thick wall and so on, present the same appearance on both the faces i.e. a course consisting of header on front face will show headers on the back face also. 4.In walls having their thickness equal to an odd number of half brick i.e. one and half brick thick walls or two and half brick thick walls and so on, the same course will stretcher on one face and headers on the other. 5.In thick walls the middle portion is entirely filled with header to prevent the formation of vertical joints in the body of the wall. 6.Since the number of vertical joints in the header course is twice the number of joints in the stretcher course, the joints in the header course are made are thinner than those in the stretcher course. 4. FLEMISH BOND: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 17

  18. 18 | P a g e In Flemish bond each course consist of alternate headers and stretchers. The alternate headers of each course are centered over the stretchers in the course below. Every alternate course starts with a header at the corner. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in the alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond. Flemish bond is further divided in to two different types namely- 1.Single Flemish Bond 2.Double Flemish Bond 1. Single Flemish Bond- This bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish bond. In this work the facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond and the backing consists of English bond in each course. This type of bonding can not be adopted in walls less than one and a half brick in thickness. This bond is adopted to present the attractive appearance of Flemish bond with an effort to ensure full strength in the brick work. 2. Double Flemish Bond- In double Flemish bond each course presents the same appearance both in the front and back elevation. Every course consist of headers and stretchers laid alternately. This type of bond is beast suited from consideration of economy and appearance. It enables the one brick wall to have flush and uniform faces on both sides. This type of bonding is comparatively weaker than English bond. Other types of brick bonds are- 1.Facing Bond 2.Dutch Bond 3.English Cross Bond SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 18

  19. 19 | P a g e 4.Brick on Edge Bond 5.Raking Bond 6.Zigzag Bond 7.Garden Wall Bond FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF BRICKS Following factors affecting the strength and quality of bricks- 1. Composition of brick making earth. 2. Preparation of clay and blending of ingredients. 3. Nature of moulding adopted. 4. Care taken in drying and stacking of raw or green bricks. 5. Types of kilns used including types of fuel and its feeding. 6. Burning and cooling process. 7. Care taken in unloading. It is thus obvious that not only the bricks of different brick field will have different strength, but in the same brick field, the bricks of the same batch may have different strength. The average crushing strength and tensile strength of hand moulded bricks are 60000 kN/m2 and 2000 kN/m2 respectively. The shearing strength of bricks are not subjected to the tensile stresses. It may be noted that the strength of brickwork mainly depends on the types of mortar used and not so much on the individual strength of the bricks. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 19

  20. 20 | P a g e COMPOSITIONS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH In order to get good quality brick, the earth should contain the following constituents. Silica Alumina Lime Iron Oxide Magnesia 1. SILICA- Good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60% of Silica It prevents Cracking, Shrinkage and Warping of raw bricks. It also affects the durability of bricks. The excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes brittle. 2. ALUMINA- The percentage of alumina should be in the range of 20 to 30% in a good brick earth. The presence of this constituent imparts plasticity to the clay so that it can be moulded. If present in excess, then the raw bricks shrink and warp during drying. 3. LIME- Brick earth should contain about 2 to 5% of lime. It prevents shrinkage of raw brick on drying. It helps to lower the fusion temperature. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 20

  21. 21 | P a g e It cause silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it. The excess of lime causes the bricks to melt and brick looses its shape. 4. IRON OXIDE- A good brick earth should contain about 5 to 7% of Iron oxide. It gives red colour to the bricks. It improves impermeability and durability. It gives strength and hardness. If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blackish. If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less the brick becomes yellowish in colour. 5. MAGNESIA- Good brick earth should contain a small quantity of magnesia about 1%. Magnesium in brick earth impart yellow tint to the brick. It is responsible for reducing shrinkage. Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --- Silica........................................50-60% Alumina...................................20-30% Lime.........................................2-5% Iron oxide.................................5-7% Magnesia..................................not more than 1% HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICKS AND THEIR EFFECTS Following are the ingredients which are undesirable in the brick material- Lime Alkalies Pebbles Iron pyrites Vegetation and Organic matter 1. LIME If lime in brick earth present in excess, it causes the brick to melt and hence brick looses its shape. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 21

  22. 22 | P a g e If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime after burning. This quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture, causing splitting of bricks into pieces. 2. ALKALIES Alkalies exist in the brick in the form of soda and potash Alkalies present in the brick earth lower the fusion temperature abnormally as a result of which the brick deforms and twist. Alkalies remaining in bricks will absorb water from the atmosphere. When the moisture gets evaporated leaving grey or white deposits on wall surface (efflorescence) which affects the appearance of the building structure. 3. PEBBLES It prevents mixing of clay thoroughly and uniformly, which results in weak and porous bricks. Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements. 4. IRON PYRITES If the iron pyrites present in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized and disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron pyrites. 5. VEGETATION AND ORGANIC MATTER The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in burning. But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous. This is due to the fact that the gasses will be evolved during the burning of the carbonaceous matter and it will result in the formation of small pores. MANUFACTURING OF CLAY BRICKS Manufacturing of clay bricks includes following steps- Preparation of brick earth Moulding of bricks Drying of moulded bricks Burning of bricks TESTS TO JUSTIFY BRICK QUALITY To know the quality of bricks following tests can be performed- Water Absorption test Crushing strength test SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 22

  23. 23 | P a g e Hardness test Shape and size Color test Soundness test Structure of brick Efflorescence Test 1. WATER ABSORPTION TEST- This test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture absorbed by brick under extreme condition. In this test a sample of dry brick are taken and weighed and immersed in fresh water at a temperature of 27'C for a period of 24 hours. After 24 hours the specimen taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of sample in wet condition is taken, the difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbed by brick. For a good quality brick the amount of water absorption should not exceed 20 percent of weight of dry brick. M1- Weight of dry brick M2- Weight of wet brick 2. CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST- This test is done to know the load carrying capacity of brick under compression. The brick specimen immersed in water for 24 hours, remove the specimen and SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 23

  24. 24 | P a g e drain out surplus moisture at room temperature. The frog of the brick is filled with cement mortar (1:3) and stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing machine and load is applied axially at the uniform rate of 14N/mm2 till failure occurs and note the maximum load at failure. For a good quality brick the crushing value should not be less than 105 kg/cm2. 3. HARDNESS TEST- In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of finger nail. If no impression is left on the surface, the brick is sufficient hard. 4. SHAPE AND SIZE TEST- In this test 20 bricks of standard size are randomly selected and stacked along lengthwise, widthwise and heightwise. Bricks are closely inspected to check it should be of standard size and truly rectangular with sharp edges 5. COLOR TEST- A good quality brick should posses bright and uniform color throughout its body. 6. SOUNDNESS TEST- In this test two bricks are taken randomly and struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound. 7. STRUCTURE OF BRICK- In this test a brick is broken and closely observed. It should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as lumps, holes etc. 8. EFFLORESCENCE TEST- SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 24

  25. 25 | P a g e This test is used to find out the presence of soluble salts in brick. In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours. It is then taken out from water and allowed to dry in shade. If white and grey layer is not visible on brick surface it indicates absence of soluble salts and useful for construction. If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the presence of alkalies is in acceptable range. If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate. If the alkalies presence is over 50% then the is severely affected by alkalies. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 25

  26. 26 | P a g e Building Construction TYPES OF RCC BEAMS Beam can be defined as a structural member which is normally placed horizontal. It provide resistance to bending when loads are applied on it. There are various types materials used for construction of beam such as steel, aluminum, wood etc. But RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is most commonly used material for construction of beam. TYPES OF RCC BEAMS Depending upon their supporting system RCC beam can be classified in to four categories as follows- 1.Simply Supported Beam 2.Continuous Beam 3.Semi-Continuous Beam 4.Cantilever Beam 5.T- Beam 1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM The simply supported beam contains only a single span which is supported by two supports at both ends. This beam also called simple beam. 2. CONTINUOUS BEAM This types of beam has more than two span and has more than three supports along its length in one straight line. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 26

  27. 27 | P a g e 3. SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM This types of beams does not have more than two span and three supports. 4. CANTILEVER BEAM This types of beam has only one support in one end, other end is free. 5. T-BEAM When floor slabs and beams are poured simultaneously producing a monolithic structure where where the portion of the slab at both side of the beam serves as flange of T beam. The beam below the slab serves as the web member and is sometimes called stem. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 27

  28. 28 | P a g e STANDARD SIZE OF ROOM IN A RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS TYPES OF ROOMS IN A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING AND THEIR STANDARD SIZE 1. LIVING ROOM SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 28

  29. 29 | P a g e Small- 12x18ft (3.4X5.4m) Medium- 16x20ft (4.8x6.0m) Large- 22x28ft (6.6x8.4m)    2. MASTER BEDROOM  Small- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m)  Medium- 14x20ft (4.2x6.0m)  Large- 16x24ft (4.8x7.2m) 3. BEDROOM  Small- 10x10ft (3.0x3.0m)  Medium- 12x12ft (3.6x3.6m)  Large- 14x16ft (4.2x4.8m) 4. DINING ROOM  Small- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)  Medium- 12x16ft (3.6x4.2m)  Large- 14x18ft (4.2x4.8m) 5. KITCHEN  Small- 5x10ft (1.5x3.0m) Medium- 8x13ft (2.5x3.9m) Large- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)   6. BATHROOM (MASTER BEDROOM)  Small- 6x7ft (1.8x2.7m)  Medium- 7x10ft (2.1x3.0m)  Large- 8x12ft (2.5x3.6m) 7. BATHROOM (COMMON BEDROOM)  Small- 5x9ft (1.5x2.7m)  Medium- 6x10ft (1.8x3.0m)  Large- 7x12ft (2.1x3.6m) 8. DRESSING ROOM  Small- 4x4ft (1.2x1.2m)  Medium- 5x5ft (1.5x1.5m)  Large- 6x6ft (1.8x1.8m) 9. FOYER  Small- 5ft Wide (1.5m) Medium- 6ft Wide (1.8m) Large- 8ft Wide (2.5m)   SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 29

  30. 30 | P a g e 10. STORE ROOM  Small- 6x6ft (1.8x1.8m)  Medium- 8x10ft (2.5x3.0m) Large- 10x10ft (3.0x3.0m)  11. PANTRY  Small- 2x2ft (0.6x0.6m) Medium- 3x4ft (0.9x1.2m) Large- 4x6ft (1.2x1.8m)   12. OFFICE ROOM  Small- 8x10ft (2.5x3.0m)  Medium- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m) Large- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m)  13. STUDY ROOM  Small- 10x10ft (3.0x30.m)  Medium- 12x12ft (3.6x3.6m) Large- 14x16ft (4.2x4.8m)  14. GUEST BEDROOM  Small- 10x12ft (3.0x3.6m)  Medium- 12x14ft (3.6x4.2m) Large- 14x18ft (4.2x4.8m)  15. GUEST BATHROOM  Small- 5x9ft (1.5x2.7m)  Medium- 6x10ft (1.8x3.0m) Large- 7x12ft (2.1x3.6m)  16. GARAGE  Small- 12x20ft (3.6x4.2m)  Medium- 20x20ft (6.0x6.0m) Large- 24x24ft (7.2x7.2m)  17. LAUNDRY  Small- 3x6ft (0.9x1.8m)  Medium- 6x8ft (1.8x2.5m) Large- 8x10ft (2.5x3.0m) ELEMENTS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION  SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 30

  31. 31 | P a g e COMMON BUILDING COMPONENTS SUPER STRUCTURE The super structure is that part of the building which is above the ground and which serve the purpose of buildings intended use. It includes- Plinth Wall Coulums Arches Roofs & Slabs Lintel Chajjas Parapet Stairs & Steps SUBSTRUCTURE The substructure is the lower portion of the building which is located below ground level which transmits the load of the superstructure to the sub soil. It includes- Foundation NOMINAL DIMENSIONS OF BUILDING COMPONENT SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 31

  32. 32 | P a g e Building Component Plinth (Height) Wall (Thickness) Partition Wall Load bearing Wall Lintel (Thickness) Lintel (Height) Chajja Projection Slab (Thickness) Parapet Wall (Thickness) Parapet Height Door (Width) Door (Height) Sill Height Nominal Dimensions 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 cm 10 cm 20, 30, 40 cm 15 cm 2.0 m from floor level 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 cm 0.1-0.15 m 10 cm 1 m 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 m 1.8, 2.0, 2.1 m 0.07-0.1 m Square 20x20, 30x30 cm Rectangular 20x30 cm Circular 20Ф,30Ф 1x1x1m below ground 30, 45, 60 cm No. of risers = Height of Ceiling+ Slab thickness/ Riser height No. of Treads= No. of Risers-1 15-20 cm 25, 30, 35 cm Minimum 1 m Column Size Column Footing Depth of Beam Steps Riser Height Tread Width Width of steps DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUILDINGS A building is a man made structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place such as house or factory. Buildings are classified in to two categories- (A). Based on Occupancy (B). Based on types of Construction SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 32

  33. 33 | P a g e A. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OCCUPANCY 1. Residential Buildings 2. Industrial Buildings 3. Educational Buildings 4. Institutional Buildings 5. assembly Buildings 6. Business Buildings 7. Mercantile Buildings 8. Storage Buildings 9. Hazardous Buildings RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Buildings in which sleeping arrangement are provided with or without cooking arrangement. It includes single or multi family dwelling, apartments, lodgings, restaurant, hostels, dormitories and hotels. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed. EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS These includes any buildings used for schools, colleges, education purposes. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS These buildings used for different purposes such as medical or other treatment. They includes hospitals, sanatorium, jails, asylum. ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 33

  34. 34 | P a g e These are the buildings where group of peoples meet or gather for amusement, social, religious, political, civil travel and similar purposes. E.g. theaters, motion pictures, house, assembly halls, restaurants assembly halls. BUSINESS BUILDINGS These buildings are used for transactions of business, for keeping accounts and for similar other purpose. MERCANTILE BUILDINGS These buildings are used as shops, stores, market for display and sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail, office, shops, storage services. STORAGE BUILDINGS These buildings are used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares or merchandise, vehicles and animals, grains. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS These buildings are used for the storage, handling, manufacturing or processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products. B. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURES 1. Framed Structure 2. Load Bearing Structure FRAMED STRUCTURE Reinforced cement concrete structures the most common type of construction today. They consist of a skeleton of beams and columns. The load is transferred from from beams to the columns and column intern transfer the load directly to the sub soil through footing. Framed structures are suitable for multistory building subjected to variety of extreme loads like compressive, tensile torsion, shear along with moment. The open space in the skeleton are to be filled with brick walls or glass panels. LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE In this type of structures loads from roof slab or trusses and floors are transmitted through walls to the firm soil below the ground. This types of structures are adopted where hard strata are available at shallow depth. The structural elements like beams, slabs rest directly on the walls. TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURE SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 34

  35. 35 | P a g e The different types of loads coming on the foundation of a structure are described below- 1. Dead Load 2. Live Load 3. Wind Load 4. Snow Load 5. Earthquake Load 6. Erection load 1. DEAD LOAD Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors, and roof including all other permanent construction in the building. 2. LIVE LOAD Live load consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their furniture, temporary stores, machineries. 3. WIND LOAD It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the direction of the wind. Wind Pressure = kV2 Where k= co-efficient 0.006 V= wind velocity Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and columns. 4. SNOW LOAD Actual load due to snow depends upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to retain the snow. The load due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5kg/m3 per cm depth of snow. 5. EARTHQUAKE LOAD An earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below ground. As per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerk and shocks are acting on the earth. As per the location of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients of earthquake loads are decided. 6. ERECTION LOAD SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 35

  36. 36 | P a g e All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage or positioning of construction material and erection equipment including all loads due to operation of such equipment shall be considered as erection load. DAMP-PROOFING In order to prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the building the damp- proofing courses (D.P.C) are provided at various levels of entry of damp in to a building. At present practically all the buildings are given the treatment of damp- proofing. Thus the provision of D.P.c prevent the entry of moisture from walls, floors, and basement of a building. Following are the various causes of dampness in a building: Rising of moisture from the ground Rain travel from wall tops Rain beating against external walls Condensation Poor drainage, imperfect orientation, imperfect roof slope, defective construction etc. The ideal damp proofing material have the following characteristics: 1.It should be perfectly impervious 2.It should be durable SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 36

  37. 37 | P a g e 3.It should be strong and capable of resisting superimposed load coming on it. 4.It should be flexible so that it can accommodate the structural movements without any fracture. 5.It should remain steady in its position when once applied 6.It should not be costly. The materials commonly used for damp-proofing are not bitumen, mastic asphalt, bituminous or asphaltic felts, metal sheets, combination of sheets are felts, stone, bricks, mortar, cement concrete and plastic sheets. The following general principles should be kept in mind while providing D.P.C. 1.The damp-proofing course may be horizontal or vertical. 2.The horizontal damp-proof course ahould cover the full thickness of wall, excluding rendering. 3.The damp-proof course should be so laid that a continous projection is provided. 4.At junctions and cornersof walls, the horizontal damp-proof course should be laid continous. 5.The mortar bed supporting the damp-proof course should be even and levelled and should be free from projections so that the damp proof course is not damaged. 6.The damp proof course should not be kept exposed on the wall surface otherwise it may get damaged during finishing work. 7.When a horizontal damp proof course is continued to a vertical face a cement concrete fillet of about 75 mm radius should be provided at he junction. ARCHES- IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS An arch is a structure constructed to span across an opening. It generally consist of small wedge-shaped units which are jointed together with mortar. The important technical terms used in arch work are as follows: 1.Intrados- It is the inner curve of an arch. 2.Soffit- It is the inner surface of an arch. Sometimes intrados and soffit are used synonymously. 3.Extrados- It is the outer curve of an arch. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 37

  38. 38 | P a g e 4.Voussoirs- These are wedge-shaped units of masonry forming an arch. 5.Crown- It is the highest point of the extrados. 6.Skew back- It is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment on which the arch rests. 7.Abutment- It is the part of the wall on which the arch rest. In other words it is the end support of an arch. 8.Key stone- It is the wedge--shaped unit at the crown of an arch. 9.Springer- It is the voussoir next to skew back. 10.Springer line- It is an imaginary line joining the lowest parts of springer. 11.Haunch- It is the bottom portion of an arch between the skew back and crown. 12.Span- It is the clear horizontal distance between the supports. 13.Pier- It is an intermediate support of an arch. 14.Rise- It is the clear vertical distance between the springing line and the highest point on the intrados. 15.Depth or height- It is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and extrados. 16.Thickness or breatdth of sofit- It is the horizontal distance measured perpendicular to the front and back faces of an arch. STAIRS- COMMON TECHNICAL TERMS SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 38

  39. 39 | P a g e A stair is a sequence of steps provided to afford the means of ascent and decent between the floors or landing. The apartment or room of a building in which the stair is located is known as a staircase and the opening or space occupied by the stair is known as stairway. Following are the common technical terms used in connection with the stairs- Tread- The horizontal upper part of a step on which foot is placed in ascending or descending a stairway is called tread. 1.Riser- A vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread is called riser. 2.Flier- A straight step having a parallel width of tread is called flier. 3.Flight- An unbroken series of steps between two landing is called flight. 4.Landing- A horizontal platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors is calledlanding. It facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest during the use of the stair. 5.Rise- The vertical distance between two successive tread faces is called rise. 6.Going- The horizontal distance between two successive riser face is called going. 7.Nosing- The projecting part of the tread beyond the face of riser is called nosing. 8.Scotia- A moulding provided under the nosing to beautify the elevation of a step and to provide strength to nosing is called scotia. 9.Soffit- The under surface of a stair is called soffit. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 39

  40. 40 | P a g e 10.Pitch or slope- The angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal is called pitch or slope. 11.Strings or stringers- The sloping members which support the steps in a stair are calledstrings or stringers. 12.Baluster- The vertical member of wood or metal to support the hand rail is called baluster. 13.Balustrade- The combined frame work of handrail and balusters is known as balustrade. 14.Hand rail- The horizontal or inclined support provided at a convenient height is calledhand rail. 15.Newel post- The vertical member placed at the ends of flight connecting the ends of strings and hand rail is called newel post. Notes:- The size of a step commonly adopted for residential building is 250 mm X 160 mm. In hospital etc. the comfortable size of step is 300 mm X 100 mm. The width of stairs depend upon its location in the building and the types of a building itself. In a residential building the average value of stair width is 900 mm while in a public building 1.5 to 1.8 metres width may be required. The width of landing should be greater than the width of stair. The pitch of stair should never exceed 40 degree. In designing a stair a comfortable slopes is achieved when the sum of going and twice the rise should be equal to 60 approximately. In designing a stair the product of going and the rise should be equal to 400. The clear distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it should not be less than 2 metres. An open newel stair consist of two or more straight flights arranged in such a manner that a clear space occurs between the background and forward flights. In wooden stairs the thickness of tread is adopted as 38 mm. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 40

  41. 41 | P a g e BUILDING MATERIALS BUILDING MATERIALS List of building materials....... 1. Brick 2. Cement 3. Sand 4. Coarse Aggregate 5. Concrete 6. Reinforcement SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 41

  42. 42 | P a g e 7. Mortar 8. Wood 9. Tiles 10. Glass 11. Plastic 12. Paint REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD AGGREGATE Following are the desirable properties and requirement of a good aggregate- Adhesion Cementation Durability Hardness Shape Strength Toughness ADHESION: A good aggregate should have adhesive property, it should have sufficient binding capacity with binder. If this quality is absent in the aggregate, it will lead to the separation of bituminous and cement coating in the presence of water. CEMENTATION: The binding quality of the aggregate depends on its ability to form its own binding material under different loading so as to make the rough broken stone pieces grip together to resist displacement DURABILITY: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 42

  43. 43 | P a g e A good aggregate should be sufficiently durable, it should be sufficiently resistant to weathering agencies and is largely dependent upon its petrological composition. This requirement of aggregate is essential so that it can resist the effect of weathering agencies like rain, frost, variation of temperature etc. in order to achieve long life of the structures. HARDNESS: A good aggregate should be sufficiently hard, it should offer maximum possible resistance to abrasion and attrition. The road aggregate should be hard enough to resist abrasion due to grinding of pieces of stones against each other. SHAPE: The shape of aggregates may be rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated. The flaky and elongated aggregates possess less strength and durability and they are not used in construction work as far as possible. The rounded aggregates are preferred in cement concrete construction. They are unsuitable in W.B.M construction, bituminous construction, and in granular base course because their stability due to interlocking is less. The angular aggregates are used for such types of construction work. STRENGTH: The good aggregates should be sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses developed due to the wheel load of traffic. This property is especially desirable for the road aggregates which are to be used in top layer of the pavements. Thus the wearing course of road should be composed of aggregates which posses enough strength in addition to enough resistance to crushing. TOUGHNESS: A good aggregate quite tough, it should offer the maximum possible resistance to the hammering effect of wheel load. This is essential so that the aggregate used in the construction of pavement can resist the impact caused due to movement of heavy traffic load without breaking into smaller pieces. PROPERTIES OF GOOD PRESERVATIVE FOR TIMBER The preservatives used to protect the timber should contain following requirements or properties- It should be effortlessly and cheaply available. SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 43

  44. 44 | P a g e It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc. It should cover larger area with small quantity. It should be economical. It should not contain any unpleasent smell. It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc. It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc and should also efficient to kill them. It should not generate flame when contact with fire. It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them. Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on timber after the application of preservatives. The depth of penetration of preservatives in wood fibers should be minimum 6mm to 25mm. QUALITIES OF GOOD TIMBER Following are the characteristics or qualities of a good timber: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 44

  45. 45 | P a g e 1.APPEARANCE: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and shining appearance. 2.COLOUR: The colour of timber should preferably be dark. The light colour usually indicates timber with low strength. 3.DEFECTS: A good timber should be free from serious defects such as dead knots, flaws, shakes, etc. 4.DURABILITY: A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the action of fungi insects, chemicals, physical agencies and mechanical agencies. If wood is exposed to the actions of acid and alkalies foe a prolonged period it is seriously damaged. The weak alkali and acid solutions usually do not affect wood to a considerable extent. 5.ELASTICITY: This is the property by which timber returns to its original shapes when load causing its deformation is removed. This property of timber would be essential when it is to used for bows, carrying shafts, sports goods etc. 6.FIBRES: The timber should have straight fibres. 7.FIRE RESISTANT: The timber is a bad conductor of heat. A dense wood offers good resistant to the fire and it requires sufficient heat to cause a flame. The heat conductivity of wood is low and it depends on various factors such as porosity, moisture content, surrounding temperature, orientation of fibres, bulk densdity etc. 8.HARDNESS: A good timber should be hard i.e. it should offer resistant when it is being penetrate by another body. The chemicals present in heart wood and density of wood impart hardness to the timber. The mere resistance offered to chisel or saw does not usually indicate hardness of timber. 9.MECHANICAL WEAR: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due too mechanical wear or abrasion. This property of timber would be essential for places where timber would be subjected to traffic e.g. wooden floors, pavements etc. 10.SHAPE: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning. It should not bow or warp or split. 11.SMELL: A good timber should have sweet smell. An unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber. 12.SOUND: A good timber should give out a clear ringing sound when struck. A dull heavy sound when struck indicates decayed timber. The velocity of SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 45

  46. 46 | P a g e sound in wood is 2-17 times greater than that in air and hence the wood may be considered high in sound transmission. The sound conductivity is faster along the fibres is lower in the radial direction and is slowest along the chord of a cross-section. 13.STRENGTH: A good timber should be strong for working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc. It should be capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly. It should also possess enough strength in direct and transverse directions. 14.STRUCTURE: It should be uniform. The fibres should be firmly added. The medullary rays should be hard and compact. The annual rings should be regular and they should be closed located. 15.TOUGHNESS: A good timber should be tough i.e. it should be capable of offering resistant to the shocks due to vibrations. This property of timber would be essential when it is to be used for tool handles, parts of motor cars and aeroplanes etc. 16.WATER PERMEABILITY: A good timber should have low water permeability which is measured by the quality of water filtered through a unit surface area of specimen of wood. The water permeability is greater along the fibres than in other directions and it depends on initial moisture content, character of cut, type of wood, width of annual rings, age of wood etc. 17.WEATHERING EFFECTS: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering effects. When timber is exposed to weather its colour normally fades and slow turns grey. A good timber should show the least disintegration of the surface under adverse weather conditions such as drying and wetting, extreme heat and extreme cold etc. 18.WEIGHT: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong. 19.WORKING CONDITION: The timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw and should be capable of being easily planed or made smooth. DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRESERVATIVES FOR TIMBER SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 46

  47. 47 | P a g e 1. COAL TAR The timber surface is coated with hot coal tar with the help of brush. The coal tar becomes workable when heated. The process is known as the tarring. The coal tar has unpleasant smell and appearance. It makes timber unsuitable for painting. Hence the tarring is adopted for frames of doors and windows, rough timber work etc. and it is found to be most useful for parts embedded in ground because of its cheapness and effective resistance. The coal tar is fire resistant. 2. ASCU The ascu is special preservative which is developed at the Forest Research Institute Dehradun. Its composition is as follows- (a). Part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide, (As2O5, 2H2O) (b). Part by weight of blue vitriol or copper sulphate, (CuSO4, 5H2O) (c). Part by weight of potassium dichromate, (K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7, 2H2O) This material is available in powder form. To prepare a solution of this material, six parts by weight of ascu are mixed in 100 parts by weight of water. The solution is then sprayed or applied on timber surface. This preservative gives timber protection against the attack of white ants. The surface treated with this preservative can be painted, polished, varnished or waxed. The solution is odourless. 3. CHEMICAL SLATS These are water borne preservatives and they are mostly salts dissolved in water. The usual salts used are copper sulphate, mercury chloride, sodium fluoride and zinc chloride. The solutions are prepared from these salts and SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 47

  48. 48 | P a g e they are applied on the timber surface can be painted or varnished after drying. These preservatives have good penetration and the timbers treated with these preservatives will show an immediate increase in weight of 2400 to 4800 N per m3. After drying the net increase in weight will come down to about 50 to 300 N per m3. 4. OIL PAINTS The timber surface is coated with 2 or 3 coats of oil paint. The wood should be seasoned. Otherwise sap will be confined and it will lead to the decay of timber. The oil paints preserve timber from moisture and make it durable. 5. SOLIGNUM PAINTS These paints preserve timber from white ants as they are highly toxic in nature. They can be mixed with colour pigments and applied in hot state with the help of brush. The timber surface may therefore be given the desired colour or appearance. 6. CREOSOTE OIL In this case the timber surface is coated with creosote oil. The process is known as the creosoting or Bethel's method of preservation of timber. The creosote oil is obtained by the distillation of tar. The creosoting is carried out as follows- (a). The timber is thoroughly seasoned and dried. (b). It is then placed in an air tight chamber. (c). The air is pumped out from the chamber. (d). The creosote oil is then pumped under a high pressure off about 0.70 to 1 N/mm2 and a temperature of about 50*C. (e). After a period of about 1 to 2 hours when timber has sufficient absorbed creosote oil it is taken out of chamber. The creosote oil is one of the best antiseptic substance poisonous for wood attacking fungi. It is a black or brown liquid weakly affected by water neither volatile nor hygroscopic, harmless to wood or metal, inflammable, with an unpleasant odour and having low wood penetrating ability to the extent of 1 mm to 2 mm only. The creosoting practically doubles the life of timber and it is generally adopted for piles, poles, railway sleepers, etc. Depending upon the net retention and type of timber the creosote treated timber will normally increase in weight by 800 to 3200 N per m3. The creosote oil is highly toxic in nature and gives out SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 48

  49. 49 | P a g e highly unpleasant smell. The process of creosoting proves to be costly. The creosote oil should not be used for interior surface of dwelling houses, foodstuff storage premises, in underground installation and near inflammable surface. IMPORTANT BUILDING STONES The following are important building stone, their composition, properties and uses: 1. Granite: It is an igneous rock. It is mainly composed of quartz, felspar and mica. Its specific gravity is 2.64 and compressive strength varies from 70 to 130 MN/m2. Its colour depends upon that of felspar which may be brown, grey, green and pink. A fine grained granite offers high resistance to weathering. It can be easily polished and worked. It is used for exterior facing of buildings. 2. Slate: It is an argillaceous rock. It is mainly composed of alumina mixed with sand or carbonate of lime. Its specific gravity is 2.8 and compressive strength varies from 60 to 70 MN/m2. It has grey or dark blue colour. A good slate is hard, tough and fine grained. It is suitable for use in cistern. The slate in the form of tiles is used as an excellent roof covering material. 3. Gneiss: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 49

  50. 50 | P a g e It is a silicious rock. It is mainly composed of quartz and felspar. It is more easily worked than granite. It is a good material for street paving. 4. Sandstone: It is a sedimentary rock of silicious variety. It is mainly composed of quartz, lime and silica. Its specific gravity is 2.65 to 2.95 and compressive strength varies from 35 to 40 MN/m2. Its usual colours are white, grey, brown, pink etc. The fine grained stones are strong and durable. It is suitable for ashlar work, mouldings, carving etc. 5. Limestone: It is a sedimentary rock of calcarious variety. Its specific gravity is 2.6. It is available in brown, yellow and dark grey colours. It is used in large quantities in blast furnaces. It may be used as stone masonry for wall. 6. Marble: SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 50

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