Cognitive Development- Jean Piaget and Vygotsky

1. Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget & Leo Vygotsky

2. Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes. Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically. children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world child plays an active role in the development of intelligence and learns by doing or experimenting with things. Piaget considers the child as a philosopher who perceives the world through his/her own experience. Piaget’s research in cognitive and intellectual development began by careful observation of his own children as infants and later on studying larger samples of children.

3. Piaget did not want to measure how well children can spell, count or solve problems to check their I.Q. He was more intrigued to find out how the fundamental concepts such as the very idea of time, number, justice, quantity and so on emerged Stage theory- wherein each stage characterized by a qualitatively different type of thinking and behavior constant or invariable stages Cognitive development is also cumulative which means that a new experience is based on or grows from a previous learning experience.

4. Major Elements and Concepts of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Schemas The processes that enable the transition from one stage to another The four stages of cognitive development Schemas basic building and organizing block of all intelligent behavior. A schema is a form that an individual uses to organize the information and also to interpret things that he/she perceives such as sights, sounds, tastes, odors can include objects, actions and abstract concepts. Schemata are cognitive structures and help in representing and understanding aspects of the world. Schemas includes categories that help in simplifying and organizing information but also has pre-conceived ideas in them.

5. The Processes- Assimilation Information from interaction can be combined with an already existing schema. Assimilation involves fitting new material into an already existing model of the world. This process saves a lot of time as the categories are already there and the new information has to be added or combined. But this process can also result in stereotyping. Accomodation New information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas. Rather than make the new information fit into an existing schema, you change the schema in order to accommodate the new information. New schemas may also be developed during this process. Schemas become more refined, detailed, and nuanced

6. equilibrium Cognitive equilibrium means a balance between assimilation and accommodation There is a imbalance or disequilibrium when the schema doesn't fit reality. Assimilation and accommodation go on till the balance is achieved and this process of equilibration produces more effective schemas.

7. Stages of Cognitive Development STAGE ONE: Sensorimotor stage (from birth to approx. 2 years) Information coming from the environment is acknowledged through all the sense organs. use of senses and motor abilities. Early on the child uses only reflexes and innate or inherited behavior. Towards the end of this stage, the child starts using complex sensorimotor skills to perceive the environment. Because the difference between a newly born infant and a 2 year old is so vast, this stage is divided into 6 substages.

8. Reflexes (Birth-1 month): unlearned reflexes; keep the child active and to let the child live. Primary Circular Actions (1-4 months): preoccupied with his/her own body as they gain voluntary control over their actions.; repeats actions continually on themselves and so it is a circular action. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): Manipulation of the objects Co-ordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months): engaging in goal-directed behavior, understand cause- effect relationships Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): creative and flexible Symbolic/Mental Representation (18-24 months): ability to mentally construct the problem, various actions possible and their consequences and then plan their actions accordingly. Symbolic thought; mental representation of objects

10. object permanence In the fourth sub-stage infants begin showing the ability of object permanence. Deferred imitation Children during the end of sub-stage 1 begin to mentally represent objects and behaviors they see in their surroundings. They are able to mentally act on their representations and so are able to copy the behaviors that they have seen later when the person is absent.

11. STAGE TWO: The Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years) Symbolic functioning means that one object can be used in place of another object and so it symbolically represents the other object. For example a child may use a block or a torch to pretend that he/she has a mobile. Language itself is a representational system and by this stage children can understand the connection between language, actions and objects. Egocentrism is the tendency to think only from one's own point and inability to consider others’ perspectives.

12. Conservation; difficulty to understand that certain properties of objects remain same even though their appearance may change. Centration is the inability to focus on all the aspects of the problem or an object. So a child may focus on only one aspect such as perceptual appearance and may ignore other aspects of the object. Because of this tendency children cannot categorize or organize things on more than one level, also called hierarchical classification. Irreversibility is the inability to mentally reverse or undo an operation. Children of this age cannot visualize objects or numbers reversed to their previous form. Egocentrism is the tendency to think only from one's own point and inability to consider others’ perspectives. Egocentrism also gives rise to another important feature of pre-operational period called animism. Animism is a belief that inanimate objects are living.

13. STAGE THREE: The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) able to do conversation tasks such as conservation of number, weight and volume by the age of 11. Taking others' perspective into consideration becomes easier start understanding basic principles of "class inclusion". children have difficulty in abstract concepts and their thinking is limited to concrete objects and events children develop and acquire abilities of conservation, reversibility and decentration. Reversibility means the ability to mentally reverse actions and operations. Decentration involves focusing on various aspects of a problem to understand and solve It. Less Egocentric- Children in this stage are able to consider different point of views while looking at a problem.

14. For example, when seriation tasks are used, children are asked questions such “Meeta is taller than Rita. Meeta is shorter than Anya. Who is the tallest?” Children in concrete operational stage fail to provide a correct answer because the situation is very abstract for them. But when dolls are used to represent Meeta, Rita and Anya, the children are able to answer because now the situation is concrete.

15. STAGE FOUR: The Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 onwards) develop the ability to think hypothetically and “outside the box”. Can think about abstract concepts Can derive logical conclusions from the verbal statements presented to them. scientific reasoning Criticism Underestimates child’s ability Overestimates age differences in thinking Lack of evidences in stage wise quality- gradual, overlapping of skills Underestimates socio cultural factors Absence of formal operational thought out of area of expertise

16. Leo Vygotsky Sociocultural theory focuses on qualitative changes in behavior over time, that attempt to explain unseen processes of development in thought, language, and higher-order thinking skills. Vygotsky's social development theory asserts that a child's cognitive development and learning ability can be guided and mediated by their social interactions. His theory (Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory) states that learning is a crucially social process as opposed to an independent journey of discovery. Although Vygotsky’s intent was mainly to understand higher psychological processes in children, his ideas have many practical applications for learners of all ages.

17. Three themes are often identified with Vygotsky’s ideas of sociocultural learning: (1) human development and learning originate in social, historical, and cultural interactions, (2) the use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediates the development of higher mental functions, and (3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development. sociocultural theory Vygotsky contended that thinking has social origins, social interactions play a critical role especially in the development of higher-order thinking skills, and cognitive development cannot be fully understood without considering the social and historical context within which it is embedded “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)” It is through working with others on a variety of tasks that a learner adopts socially shared experiences and associated effects and acquires useful strategies and knowledge

18. guided participation (Rogoff), where a learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities through a meaningful, collaborative activity with an assisting, more experienced other. children's learning through their interaction with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The more knowledgeable other could be anyone with a greater understanding of the task or concept that the child is trying to complete or learn. Most often, this would be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it could also be a peer or mentor. academic or educational learning, it can also be applied to recreational learning The MKO could also be an electronic tutor, in cases where a program is set up to guide learning using voice prompts or videos.

19. Vygotsky posited that higher mental functions are not innate but develop through social interaction and the internalization of cultural tools Cultural tools are methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with more knowledgeable members of society. These tools, such as language, counting systems, mnemonic techniques, and art forms, shape the way individuals think, problem-solve, and interact with the world

20. Language- higher order thinking skills Tools- writing systems, number systems, mnemonic techniques, works of art, diagrams, maps, and drawings Transmitted over generations- difference in culture biological factors limit memory in young children. However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. For example, in Western culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, carrying pebbles, or repeating the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.

21. The ZPD (zone of proximal development) relates to the difference between what a child (or a novice) can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should occur, enabling the child to develop skills they will later use independently, thus fostering higher mental functions. not a static space but constantly shifts as the child learns and develops new skills. As a child’s competence grows, their zone of proximal development also expands to encompass new challenges. Internalization within the ZPD isn’t a passive transfer of information but a dynamic process where learners actively participate and engage in meaning-making. For example, a child learning to solve a problem with a parent’s guidance doesn’t simply memorize the solution but actively constructs their understanding through dialogue and interaction.

23. Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance This refers to tasks that the learner can perform independently. If the learner has reached this stage, the teacher or mentor will need to increase the level of difficulty of the task in order to facilitate further learning. Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance This is referred to as their zone of proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the guidance of a more knowledgeable other to help them complete the task. Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance This refers to tasks that the learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more knowledgeable person. If the learner's ability falls within this range, the level of difficulty may need to be decreased to accommodate their skillset.

24. guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning). Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of actual abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. While both Piaget and Vygotsky highlighted the importance of interactions with the social and physical world as the sources of developmental change, Piaget’s ideas of cognitive development emphasized universal stages progressing toward increasing cognitive complexity. Vygotsky presents a more culturally-embedded view in which situated participatory learning drives development. The idea of learning driving development, rather than being determined by the developmental level of the learner, fundamentally changes our understanding of the learning process and has significant instructional and educational implications

25. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance and mentoring. If we believe as Piaget did that development precedes learning, then we will introduce children to learning activities involving new concepts and problems, but follow their lead, allowing learners to initiate participation when they are ready or interested. On the other hand, if we believe as Vygotsky did that learning drives development and that development occurs as we learn a variety of concepts and principles, recognizing their applicability to new tasks and new situations, then our instructional design will look very different.

26. Language According to Vygotsky, there are three stages/forms of language in the development process: Social speech - communication between children and others (usually from the age of 2). Serves as the primary means for children to engage with others, establish shared meanings, and participate in cultural activities Private speech - private speech that is directed to the self but has not yet been internalised (usually from the age of 3) . Overt and audible speech directed to the self and serves an intellectual function Silent inner speech - a child's internal monologue (usually from the age of 7).

27. For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point, speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, and speech becomes representational. As children develop mental representation, particularly the skill of language, they start to communicate with themselves in much the same way as they would communicate with others. When this happens, children’s monologues are internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development. This internal dialogue allows individuals to mentally rehearse different viewpoints, contributing to more sophisticated social understanding and problem-solving abilities.

28. Private speech is overt, audible, and observable, often seen in children who talk to themselves while problem-solving. Conversely, inner speech is covert or hidden because it happens internally. It is the silent, internal dialogue that adults often engage in while thinking or problem-solving.

29. Through private speech, children collaborate with themselves in the same way a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborates with them to achieve a given function. Vygotsky sees “private speech” as a means for children to plan activities and strategies, aiding their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-regulation of behavior. Private speech is not just aimless chatter; it serves a vital self-regulatory function. As children develop, they need to transition from relying on external guidance from adults to directing their own actions and thoughts. Private speech emerges as a way for children to guide their own behavior, especially during challenging tasks. They are essentially verbalizing the thought process that will eventually become internalized as inner speech.

30. Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech. She found that most private speech exhibited by children serves to describe or guide the child’s actions. Therefore, language accelerates thinking and understanding (Jerome Bruner also views language this way). Vygotsky believed that children who engage in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively. Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child’s activity but acts as a tool the developing child uses to facilitate cognitive processes, such as overcoming task obstacles, and enhancing imagination, thinking, and conscious awareness. Your task- Applications and critical evaluation

31. Information Processing Theory for Language Acquisition Information Processing Theory explores how the human mind processes, stores, and retrieves information, including language. This theory draws parallels between language learning and other cognitive tasks, viewing language acquisition as an information processing endeavor.

32. first receive sensory information from the printed text, i.e. the eyes take in the size and shape of letters, then letters are grouped to make words, then words are grouped to make sentences. As readers move their eyes across the page, they remember what they just read seconds ago. In this second step, information is passed to short-term memory. A successful reader will remember the information from the printed text longer and move it to long-term memory, which can be retrieved later. In contrast, a struggling reader may not remember how a sentence is started by the time the individual finishes the sentence. The role of attention in learning to read Infants are shown to have selective attention, i.e., to select and process certain information while simultaneously ignoring others, in language learning At no later than 6 month of age, infants start to pay attention to the talker’s mouth, which is advantageous for them to imitate speaking skills

33. As the proficiency level of reading improves, learners’ attention to the structurally central aspects of the text becomes more selective and more efficient. The role of working memory in learning to read phonological memory serial recognition tasks Verhagen and Leseman (2015) showed verbal short-term memory (VSTM, storage component, measured with word recall task) and verbal working memory (VWM, processing component, measured with backward digit recall task) play different roles in language learning. Specifically, VSTM is related to vocabulary while VWM is important for grammar. The role of metacognition in learning to read Processes the textual information and associates it with background knowledge, which requires awareness and monitoring of the comprehension process of the reader

34. Temperament Temperament is the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth. Both temperament and character are components of our personality. However, psychology establishes limits between them based on their differentiated characteristics and the factors that intervene in their development. Temperament refers to the natural tendency of each of us to respond in a specific way to our environment. That is, the most instinctive reactions or automatic behaviors. Temperament is mostly determined by genetics being a reflection of our inherited characteristics and our biology, therefore, it is the component of personality that appears first being visible from the early stages of childhood or even in infants.

35. Having one temperament or another predisposes to both the development of certain personality traits and the development of certain emotional problems. - For example, a temperament that is characterized by an overactive sympathetic nervous system may make us more prone to anxiety, while a temperament that has low levels of cortical activation behind it would make us more prone to extroversion. Due to its strong genetic component, temperament is difficult to change since to a greater or lesser extent that tendency will always be there. However, that does not mean that it determines our personality or behavior and that we cannot learn to control what we feel or do.

36. Character reflects how social and cultural factors influence temperament. That is, it is born from the influence of the environment on cognitive processes, perception and emotions to which we are genetically predisposed. Character is not as stable as temperament and is acquired by learning through experiences and social interactions. Therefore, it does not appear in the early stages of development but goes through different stages and does not reach its full form until late adolescence. Because character is acquired, it is possible to modify it, for example, through social education, changes in habits, among others. Personality Personality is the mixture of temperament, character and behavior, therefore, it is the sum of heredity, learned habits and the way we relate to the world. All these factors shape not only our behavioral patterns but also the way we process information from our environment and the way we feel.

37. Our personality changes and adapts, especially during childhood and adolescence, and then stabilizes. After this period change, although possible, is less likely. This is why personality is something that distinguishes us and shows itself to be stable over time and across different situations. Chess and Thomas (1996) evaluated 141 children’s temperament based on parental interviews. Referred to as the New York Longitudinal Study, infants were assessed on 9 dimensions of temperament including: Activity level, rhythmicity (regularity of biological functions), approach/withdrawal (how children deal with new things), adaptability to situations, intensity of reactions, threshold of responsiveness (how intense a stimulus has to be for the child to react), quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence. Based on the infants’ behavioral profiles, they were categorized into three general types of temperament:

38. Easy Child (40%) who is able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations, remains calm, is easy to soothe, and usually is in a positive mood. Difficult Child (10%) who reacts negatively to new situations, has trouble adapting to routine, is usually negative in mood, and cries frequently. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%) has a low activity level, adjusts slowly to new situations and is often negative in mood. A caregiver’s ability to work well and accurately read the child will enjoy a Goodness- of-Fit, meaning their styles match and communication and interaction can flow. Parents who recognize each child’s temperament and accept it, will nurture more effective interactions with the child and encourage more adaptive functioning. For example, an adventurous child whose parents regularly take her outside on hikes would provide a good “fit” to her temperament.

39. Parenting is bidirectional: Not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents. Child characteristics, such as temperament, affect parenting behaviors and roles. For example, an infant with an easy temperament may enable parents to feel more effective, as they are easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and cooing. On the other hand, a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role Over time, parents of more difficult children may become more punitive and less patient with their children. Parents who have a fussy, difficult child are less satisfied with their marriages and have greater challenges in balancing work and family roles. Thus, child temperament is one of the child characteristics that influences how parents behave with their children.

40. Temperament does not change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work around and manage our temperamental qualities. Temperament may be one of the things about us that stays the same throughout development. In contrast, personality, defined as an individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving, is the result of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience. Personality also develops from temperament in other ways. As children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. A newborn is not capable of much self-control, but as brain-based capacities for self- control advance, temperamental changes in self-regulation become more apparent. For example, a newborn who cries frequently doesn’t necessarily have a grumpy personality; over time, with sufficient parental support and increased sense of security, the child might be less likely to cry.

41. Goodness of Fit The compatibility of a person’s temperament with his surrounding environment is referred to as “goodness of fit.” Some temperaments and environments seem to naturally fit together, while others do not. There are two types of “Goodness of Fit:” how that trait interacts with the environment how it interacts with the people in that environment. Any trait in and of itself is not a problem; rather it is the interaction that determines the “acceptability” of that trait.

42. Fit with Environment When there is a match between the demands and expectations of the environment and the child’s temperament and abilities, that is a good fit. This makes success and high self-esteem more likely. When there is not a good fit, there is a greater risk for difficulties for the child. Picture a highly irregular child who is hungry at different times each day attending a school where lunches are served promptly at noon everyday. The parent may become frustrated when the child brings his lunch home uneaten or upset if the teacher calls because the child is crying because she is famished by 10 am. Or a very active child who lives in a small apartment may have greater difficulty getting out all of his energy than a similar child who lives on a farm. This can make things harder for the child and the parent. Similarly, a very active child in a very traditional and more restrictive school setting might run into trouble abiding by the rules of conduct.

43. Fit with People Goodness of fit also describes how well the child’s temperament “fits” with the people in his environment and how likable the people in the environment consider the child to be. All adults have their own unique temperaments that can sometimes be very different from the child’s. This is true of parents, teachers, caregivers, etc. Sometimes this clash in temperaments can be the reason why a parent or another adult may be struggling with a child. you may have less patience to deal with a temperament you don’t understand Some parents find it difficult to accept traits that they recognize in themselves that they do not like or that have caused them trouble in their own lives. For example:if a very active parent has a child who does not enjoy physical activity, this can create potential conflict in the home if it feels to the parent that he is begging his child just to go for a bike ride.Or, if a parent who is very social and enjoys parties and gatherings has a child who has a really tough time entering a group of people and is very shy or slow to warm, this parent may become frustrated and angry with the child for not being more friendly and outgoing.

44. Practice decide if changes may be needed so that there is a better match between the child and his environment. approach a situation with more empathy. help your children understand and manage their reactions to certain things. have more realistic expectations about your children. Sometimes just knowing you have a child who is more challenging temperamentally can help you to understand that it is not your fault, you did not make this child the way he is, and it is not the result of “bad” parenting. select situations or activities that “fit” for them so that they can feel more successful. Benefits can avoid some of the recurring battles that take place within your home. Can build a more trusting, respectful relationship with your children. children’s self-esteem is raised.

45. Identity Status Identity- an individual’s sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles. Identity involves a sense of continuity, or the feeling that one is the same person today that one was yesterday or last year (despite physical or other changes). Such a sense is derived from one’s body sensations; one’s body image; and the feeling that one’s memories, goals, values, expectations, and beliefs belong to the self. Also called personal identity. In order to explain how personal identities are formed, James Marcia (1966, 1980) abstracted and operationalized parts of Erikson’s extensive theory. He described four identity statuses as different ways in which adolescents may deal with the task of identity formation.

46. In his approach, adolescents are asking questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. Studies assessing how teens pass through Marcia’s stages show that although most teens eventually succeed in developing a stable identity, the path to it is not always easy and there are many routes that can be taken. Some teens may simply adopt the beliefs of their parents or the first role that is offered to them, perhaps at the expense of searching for other more promising possibilities (foreclosure status). Other teens may spend years trying on different possible identities (moratorium status) before finally choosing one.

47. Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration. Identity-Diffusion status is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity. The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life. Identity-Foreclosure status is the status for those who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options. The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others. Some parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps.

48. Identity-Moratorium status is a status that describes those who are exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them. This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is certain and there are many questions, but few answers. Identity-Achievement status refers to the status for those who, after exploration, have made a commitment. The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions. This is a long process and is not often achieved by the end of adolescence Social Identity- adolescence

49. Moral development - Lawrence Kohlberg stepwise process of development of morality and moral reasoning in children. expanded on Piaget's work, has had a profound impact on psychology, education, and ethics. It consists of three levels, each containing two stages, outlining the moral evolution of individuals. six stages-; moral logic is primarily focused on obtaining and upholding justice. Each stage involves considering different considerations when deciding what is right and wrong.- Moral dilemmas Moral dilemmas can help determine which level of moral development a person is experiencing. By presenting people with moral decision-making tasks, psychologists can assess where individuals fall in the six stages of Kohlberg's moral developmental stages. “Would you go against your parents if they told you to do something wrong?” or “What would you do if you found a wallet full of cash and had an urge to keep it for yourself?”

50. There is a fight in the schoolyard. Two ninth-graders are beating up Tom. Those who watch the fight are at different stages of moral development.