Research philosophies and approaches

1. Research philosophies and approaches What is a research paradigm? Characteristics of research paradigms Ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology Pragmatism Research Approaches Induction & Deduction The most important paradigms to know Positivsm, realism (post/neo positivism), Interpretivism

2. The research �onion�

3. Research philosophy �Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge� Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009) A paradigm is �a basic set of beliefs that guide action, whether of the everyday garden variety or action taken with a disciplined inquiry�. Guba, Egon 1990. The Paradigm Dialog. London: Sage, p. 17.

4. Characteristics of research philosophies Ontology What is the nature of reality? Is there a reality? Epistemology What is the relationship between the knower (the researcher) and the know(able)? Axiology The role of values and ethics in research Methodology How should the researcher/inquirer go about finding out knowledge? A mix of Guba and Saunders et al.

5. Issues in research philosophy One paradigm fits all or a more pragmatic view? Research approach Induction Generation of hypotheses from empirical research Deduction Generation of hypotheses from theory (knowledge). Can be in the form of axioms

6. Deduction 5 sequential stages of testing theory Deducing a hypothesis Expressing the hypothesis operationally Testing the operational hypothesis Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry Modifying the theory (if necessary) Adapted from Robson (2002)

7. Characteristics of Deduction Explaining causal relationships between variables Establishing controls for testing hypotheses Independence of the researcher Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement Generalisation

8. Induction Building theory by � Understanding the way human build their world Permitting alternative explanations of what�s going on Being concerned with the context of events Using more qualitative data Using a variety of data collection methods

9. Positivism Tries to uncover the one truth about how things are � or a least what we focus on. (Social) Science then is: A structured method combining logical deduction with precise empirical observations (of the behaviour of individuals) to reveal and confirm causal relationships that are generally valid with a known probality and which can therefore be used for prediction.

10. Positivism The purpose of science is then to uncover the truth to be able to control and predict. Humans are expected to be rational. Objectivity and precision is important. Therefore measurement and measures, tools and procedures are very important. Because reality is stable and thruths are generally valid, vi kan deduct new thruths from the ones that we know.

11. Positivism � How must we conduct research? Set up hypotheses which the researcher seeks to verify logically and empirically It is important that hypotheses are set up in a way that makes testing possible. Test by different researchers under different circumstances is important - replication If empirical research does not support the hypothesis, it may be an anomali, methodological problems or that the theory is not correct.

12. Positivism � How are results presented? Facts, and how these facts were reached. Research is assumed to be free of values and values therefore has no influence on research or results. �The good academic secretary� (Den gode embedsmand)

14. Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism Humans have bounded rationality and are not completely free of values and interpretations There is an imbalance between Rigor and relevance Internal versus external validity Laboratory or field research Precision and richness Precise measurements versus learning during research Replication versus catching the nuances/small differences Quantitative versus qualitative Elegance and applicability Grand theories � are they applicable? General theories versus specific contexts Discovery versus verification Discovery is not science � however new things are discovered through exploratin Verification is science but discoveres nothing new Guba pp. 21

15. Paradigm: Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism

16. Interpretivism Related to humanism, hermeneutic, konstructivism There is not an eternally valid truth about reality. Reality is a social construction (social constructivism) A lot of concepts describe things that are not physically there Science should aim at understanding how the individual perceives reality

17. Interpretivism � how do you do research? To get a better understanding of how other human beings perceive the world around them and themselves, you have to identify with them. This means that the researcher cannot and should not be objective � but still try to be free of judgements. The researcher has to experience/sense and then consider what this means. A piece of text can be read in many ways depending on the spectacles you put on. A process from intrasubjectivity til intersubjectivity The hermeneutic circle/spiral

18. Interpretivism � how do you do research? Often, it is necessary to interpret the observed to understand behavioiur as behaviour is full of symbolic gestures The researcher kan never be completely objective � our senses and prior experiences and knowledge differ and therefore we interpret things differently If we do not know what is interesting in advance, we need to gather many data � make thick descriptions

19. Interpretivism - results Descriptions of the observed and the interpretations made and development of concepts which can describe the experienced Results often presented with data in the form of citations Results can be a theory about how an individual or a group of people experince something. This theory is put into some form of theoretical context

20. Paradigm: Interpretivism (humanistic)

21. Choosing your research approach The right choice of approach helps you to Make a more informed decision about the research design Think about which strategies will work for your research topic Adapt your design to cater for any constraints Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

22. Deductive and Inductive research Major differences between these approaches Saunders et al, (2009)