The Road to Revolution

1. The Road to Revolution How the Colonists and the British Government Fell Into Opposition

2. The Major Disputes • Cost of the wars with France • Need to appease the western Indians • Taxation • The strong tradition of local government in America • The growing role of Parliament in Britain • The irritations of the colonies with the rules of the empire

3. “Conspiracy” of Pontiac The 1763 uprising of Great Lakes tribes, led by Pontiac of the Ottawa, made it necessary to station more troops in America.

4. A Line on the Map In order to prevent further problems with the “western Indians,” the British government issued an order that no further colonists could move west of the Appalachian Mountains to establish farms. While this was to be a temporary halt to further migrations west, it only angered many colonists, who thought the victory over France should have immediately opened the west to settlement.

5. George Grenville As Lord of the King’s Treasury, George Grenville decided that new taxes (in the form of import tariffs) were needed to help pay for the cost of keeping a larger army in America. Thus, in 1764, tariffs were placed on sugar, wine, coffee and other luxuries. While some colonists complained, the response was not too loud, so Grenville added another tax by requiring colonists to purchase a special stamps for legal documents and newspapers.

6. Smuggling British soldiers and customs agents also stepped up the search for smugglers. A customs agent could use a legal warrant called a “writ of assistance” that permitted him to search any home for evidence of smuggling. American colonial lawyers, like James Otis of Massachusetts, argued on the behalf of merchants that these searches were violations of their rights as Englishmen.

7. Stamps for Revenue The “stamp tax” was fiercely resisted because it was a direct tax rather than a tariff for regulating trade. People who accepted the tariffs (because they discouraged smuggling) joined the protests against the stamp tax because it was a case of “taxation without representation” in the House of Commons that had passed the tax law.

8. Intimidation of Stamp Agents While lawyers wrote protests of the new taxes, others took a different approach – agents who sold the stamps required for legal documents were tarred and feathered, and threatened with hanging. By the end of 1765, most every official agent for the stamp tax had resigned his job. In Parliament, British statesmen denounced this “mob violence,” but members of the British Whig Party argued that if Britain pushed the colonies too far, colonists might revolt.

9. Committees of Correspondence Men who opposed the new taxes – like Samuel Adams of Boston – sent letters to other colonial leaders to urge them to engage in protests by writing pamphlets, newspaper articles, and broadsides (posters). Eventually, well-organized “committees of correspondence” grew up to manage a campaign against the new taxes.

10. Unity by Nine Colonies That the late Act of Parliament, entitled, An Act for granting and applying certain Stamp Duties, and other Duties, in the British colonies and plantations in America, etc., by imposing taxes on the inhabitants of these colonies, and the said Act, and several other Acts, by extending the jurisdiction of the courts of Admiralty beyond its ancient limits, have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists. Petition of the “Stamp Act Congress” which gathered in New York in October 1765. From this point, such gatherings would grow into an “alternate government,” outside the existing British system.

11. Further Violence When Thomas Hutchinson, a member of the council in Massachusetts, said that the Parliament had a “perfectly legal” right to tax the colonies, a mob broke into his house one night, looted it, and tore up much of the furniture. Hutchinson charged that Sam Adams had planned the mob action. Because of such opposition, Parliament repealed the Stamp tax in 1766.

12. Legal Fine Points • When colonists protested that they were being taxed while “not represented” in the House of Commons, British lawyers replied that every British subject was “virtually represented.” • James Otis, Benjamin Franklin, and many others argued that a “virtual representation” was pointless – who would worry about the concerns of people who lived 3000 miles away from London? • A proposal to allow each colony to elect 2-3 members to the House of Commons was rejected – the colonists (especially the colonial leaders) preferred to rely on their own colonial legislatures for their local and regional needs and concerns. • In effect, the colonial legislatures (in which the local leaders became experienced and important) had grown into a separate system of government, allowing some to wonder if rule from London was necessary any longer.

13. New “Taxes” As Regulations As one of the King’s finance ministers, Charles Townshend devised new tariffs on glass, tea, and other luxuries, arguing that these were not taxes but a way of “regulating trade.” Before colonial leaders organized much opposition to these “Townshend Duties,” persuaded Parliament to repeal them because they would hurt sales to the colonies.

14. King George’s Role The role of King George III in the growing colonial-Parliament argument was inconsistent. “Fat George,” as many British subjects called him in private, was somewhat involved in the day-to-day discussions about the colonies. He disliked the Whig Party, which he said was “rotten” with corruption, and tried to rule through a succession of favorite ministers. George III was also subject to periodic spells of depression.

15. Boston “Massacre” When five colonists are killed by British soldiers during an argument in March 1770, the colonial newspapers publicize this “massacre” as evidence that the British government intends to “enslave” the colonies.

16. Who Supported the Growing Revolt? John Adams (future President of the U.S.) was a lawyer in Massachusetts, and defended the British soldiers charged in the Boston Massacre.He was among the first to call for independence from Britain. But he later estimated that only one-third of all colonists supported independence, one-third were against it, and one-third were neutral.

17. The “Tea Party” In December 1773, a mob (“disguised” as Indians) destroyed 10,000 Pounds Sterling of tea in Boston Harbor. Onlookers recognized many of the “Indians” and cheered their actions.

18. The “Coercive” Acts • Both King George and Parliament were furious at the Boston “tea party” (many had investments in the east India Company that owned the tea). • King George ordered that the port of Boston be closed until the tea was paid for and the perpetrators punished. This caused much financial hardship in Massachusetts and New England. • The King also ordered more troops to Boston, appointed a British general to be the new governor of the Massachusetts colony. • The governor was also given greater powers to appoint sheriffs and juries.

19. Colonists Begin to Arm New militia groups begin to develop in many colonies (especially Massachusetts. These new militia are pledged to gather “within minutes” to resist British soldiers (“lobster-backs”) if necessary.

20. A Continental Congress In September, delegates from every colony met in Philadelphia to consider how the colonies should respond to the “coercive actions” of the King. Some delegates – mostly in New England – wanted to declare independence, while others thought a more restrained response was needed. “That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances, cannot properly be represented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity.” Resolution of the First Continental Congress (1774)

21. Appeal to the King John Dickinson of Pennsylvania favored the idea of sending a special petition to the King, explaining the grievances of the colonies in regards to taxation and the actions of the British Parliament. But while the Congress is working on this “olive branch” petition, shooting begins in Massachusetts.

22. Call to Arms In April 1775, a unit of British soldiers, searching for hidden arms) exchanges shots with militia troops at Lexington. A second battle at Concord that afternoon leads to the King declaring the colonies in revolt.

23. Bunker Hill Militia from across the colonies joined the Massachusetts units to lay siege to the British army in Boston. In June 1775, a bloody engagement at Bunker Hill cost the British 1000 casualties, and the Americans perhaps 500. Now it was war. The announcement that King George was hiring German mercenaries to fight in America converted many to the idea of independence.

24. Creating an Army The Continental Congress authorized creation of the continental army, and named George Washington to command it. Without the cannon seized at Fort Ticonderoga in New York, this army could not have driven the British out of Boston.

25. Independence It took Patrick Henry to call the King a tyrant and Thomas Paine to make the best argument for independence. Neither were much liked by the other American leaders.

26. Times that “tried men’s souls” After being driven from Boston, British forces established a stronghold in New York City, were many people remained loyal to the King. Throughout 1776 and 1777, Washington barely held the American army together, fighting several battles and winning only a few. Meanwhile, Americans in Europe tried to obtain aid from France, Spain, and other rivals of the British empire. Their pleas for aid were not helped by the British seizure of Philadelphia in 1777, forcing the Continental Congress to flea the city.

27. A Timely Victory at Saratoga In October, 1777, an American army, commanded by Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold, forced a large British force, marching south from Canada, to surrender at Saratoga, New York. This victory reversed the course of the war and brought France into the conflict against Britain.

28. War in the West Contest between the British and Americans over Indian alliances Most tribes remained neutral The Home Front Devastation from war continued to produce social, economic, and political problems The “Daughters of Liberty” were vigilant supporters of war efforts, some hoping to gain women’s voting rights Several of the states wrote new constitutions that expanded the rights to vote, abolished slavery, and placed strict limits on the powers of the state government African Americans (about a third of the population in southern states) sought liberty by fighting for both sides: approximately 55,000 fled to freedom behind British lines and to the North Social and Political Changes

29. Western Lands Secured West of the Appalachian Mountains, small forces of men led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British outposts. These victories were extremely important because they gave the Americans a claim to all the British lands between the mountains and the Mississippi River. Native Americans in the region fought mostly with the British. But because France had entered the war against Britain, French-Indian fur traders managed to convince some tribes to back the Americans

30. War in the South As British fortunes fell in the north, their forces turned south and hoped to hold onto the “tobacco colonies.”

31. Defeat at Yorktown After a French fleet stranded General Cornwallis’s British army at Yorktown, French and American troops commanded by Washington besieged the fortress and forced the army to surrender in October, 1781. In London, the Parliament refused to support the King’s war in America any longer. Independence was recognized by the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

32. American citizen-soldiers had fought the war largely on their own terms the Continental Army, whose ranks were the poorest Americans, bore the brunt of the successful rebellion The movement for independence altered views about America’s social system, slavery, and the rights of individuals With the end of the war, could American society maintain unity as they tried to build a nation? Impact of the Revolution

33. Articles Of Confederation Written during the Revolution to provide a national government, the Articles of Confederation provided for a Congress in which each state had but one vote on most proposed legislation. Many actions, including the powers to tax, to regulate trade, or to expand national power, required a UNANIMOUS vote. As result, many political leaders considered the government to be too weak to function properly.

34. New States The Northwest Ordinances (1785-86) provided a method for admitting new states, guaranteeing those states the same rights as the original 13 states. While Thomas Jefferson devised a plan for new states, the settlers themselves proved to have the last word in how a new region was settled (and what it was to be named). New states would have an enormous impact on how the political life of the nation changed over time.

35. Big States vs. Small States James Madison, a friend of Thomas Jefferson, resented the fact that small states (like New Hampshire) had the same power in the Federal legislature as the larger states (like Madison’s Virginia). Madison designed a model for stronger Federal government that would create a strong executive figure and a legislature that would assign votes according a state’s population.

36. Opening the Convention The Convention opened at Freedom Hall in Philadelphia in May 1787. Calling for a “properly constituted national government,” Edmund Randolph introduced Madison’s “Virginia Plan.” The convention was deadlocked for 2 months before a “great compromise” was made that created two legislative chambers – a House of Representatives, where population determined voting power, and a Senate where all states had equal voting power.

37. Compromise The deadlock over representation was broken by a “great compromise,” dividing the new congress into two parts – a “house of representatives” where states were given representatives according to their populations; and a “senate” where two persons represented each state. This compromised opened to the way to completing a plan for the new government.

38. Other features of the Constitution • A “three-fifths” compromise dealt with slavery by making each slave 3/5 of a free person for census count (and representation). The “slave trade” (buying slaves in Africa) was to be outlawed after 20 years. • A separate court system was created to be independent of the president and congress, with judges granted life tenure on the Federal bench. • The Constitution guaranteed a “trail by jury” to all charged in “criminal cases” (those that would lead to a jail sentence). • Judges and the president could be removed by impeachment. • The Federal government would manage the “national lands” by setting up new territories and states. • No state could discriminate against citizens of other states. • The Constitution could be changed by amendments.

39. Bargaining for ratification When the draft of the Constitution was completed, a major campaign was undertaken to get the states to adopt the new form of government. Writing as “The Federalist,” Alexander Hamilton, James Madison. And John Jay (left to right), published 85 essays explaining the design of the constitution and how it would create a stable government while protecting the rights of individuals and the states.

40. A Bill of Rights Some of the most respected men at the Constitutional Convention opposed the ratification of the Constitution unless it contained a “bill of rights” that specifically spelled out the rights of individuals. George Mason of Virginia (left) had enough influence to make ratification in Virginia uncertain. Only after Washington and Madison gave him their word that the constitution would be amended with a Bill of Rights did Mason withdraw his objections

41. Ratification When New Hampshire (the 9th state) ratified the Constitution in May 1788, an elaborate celebration was held on July 4, 1788. But not until Virginia and New York ratified the Constitution (in July) did the old Congress of the Articles of Confederation call for an election to choose a president. North Carolina and Rhode Island held off joining the new arrangement for more than a year.

42. Massive debt America in 1789 was $77 million in debt, nearly all of it due to the costs of the revolution (in expenses for supplies, pensions to the war’s veterans, etc.). Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, proposed that the government would pay off the debt through taxes on overseas trade (called tariffs), land sales, and long-term bonds invested with “sound” banks. While his proposal was a good one, it would have the side-effect of helping wealthy Americans (who owned the revolutionary bonds of debt) get even wealthier. Hamilton had more influence with northern Congressmen than anyone else.

43. Paying for Government The Federal government had only two sources of income – the sale of lands in the west and the taxes (tariffs) on imports from overseas. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton persuaded Washington to support creation of a “Bank of the United States” that could handle government finances and arrange loans for the government. Jefferson, the Secretary of State, feared this bank would allow the “wealthy and powerful” to sway Federal policies.

44. Revolution Divisions over policy in Washington’s government were made worse by the French Revolution. When the French overthrew (and later executed) their king, followers of Jefferson hailed it as an advance for liberty. Hamilton’s followers feared it could create social chaos in America. Because the new France was also at war with Britain, the situation threatened to hurt American trade in Europe. Soon much of the nation was divided over all of these inter-locked issues.

45. Division and Political Parties As the only leader trusted by almost all the voters, Washington reluctantly agreed to be re-elected in 1796, rather than let the nation be divided between the “Federalist” followers of Hamilton and the “Republican” followers of Jefferson. Ironically, even though Jefferson and his followers called themselves “Republicans” (those who wanted a republic of limited government powers), the political party they created was later renamed the “Democratic Party.” Every year since 1826, the Democrats have held a celebration of Jefferson’s birthday to honor him as the founder of their party.

46. Party Organization During the 1790s, both the Federalists and the Republicans invested a great deal of effort and money in newspapers that would editorialize their policies and support their candidates for office. Local and State governments, and even Federal offices, helped newspapers loyal to their party by giving those newspapers contracts to print official notices, laws, etc. This “printing patronage” was to be a cornerstone of party organization for over 100 years in America.

47. Trouble with Britain and France As the war between France and Britain continued, American interests continued to be harmed. British naval vessels would stop American merchant ships, seize cargoes intended for Europe, and also seize American sailors, claiming they were “deserters from the British navy.” Newspapers loyal to Jefferson called for a war against Britain.

48. French pressures France also posed problems for America. Edmond-Charles Genet, a diplomat from France, hired American sailors to seize British ships in the Atlantic, and recruited Americans for an army to attack British territory in the Florida peninsula. President Washington, angry that these actions could lead America into a war, wanted Genet deported back to France. Ironically, when the government of France changed hands because of a coup, Genet was granted political asylum in America and remained in the country until his death in 1834.

49. Adams in the middle John Adams, the second president, found himself caught between the followers of Jefferson and those of Hamilton. His one term as president was mostly a failure, largely because he could not develop an effective way to govern with Congress divided and the United States powerless to stop either France or Britain from interfering with American trade across the ocean.

50. Near war and restrictions on the press • Alien Act: Allowed the president to deport citizens of other countries or imprison them. • Naturalization Act: Required all foreign nationals to live in the US for 14 years before being allowed American citizenship. • Sedition Act: allowed the government to arrest and convict publishers for “making false, scandalous and malicious” statements about the government and its officials. Act was to run for 3 years. In 1798, supported by followers of Hamilton in Congress, Adams pushed through laws that he thought would help the U.S. counter British and French pressures. These laws allowed the Federal government to curtail foreign influence in the U.S. and to reduce newspaper criticism of the government. Jefferson said that the Sedition Act was a “violation of the liberty of speech (First Amendment) – but as yet, no court had the power to determine the “constitutionality” of a law.