SURVEYING

1. SURVEYING Introduction

2. Introduction to Surveying • Definition: Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.

3. The work of the surveyor consists of 5 phases: • Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point locations. • Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording data in the field. • Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to determine locationsin a useable form. • Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form. • Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in the field.

4. Object of Surveying • The primary object of survey is the preparation of plan of estate or buildings roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to measure area of field, state, nation. • Object of geodetic surveying is to determine precise positions on the surface of the earth of widely distant points.

5. Uses of Surveying • To prepare a topographical map this shows the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of a country. • To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields houses, and other properties. • To prepare an engineering map to show details like roads, railways, canals, etc. • .

6. Uses of Surveying • To prepare military map showing roads and railways, communication with different parts of country. • To prepare contour map and to determine capacity of a reservoirs and ton find the best possible route for roads, railways etc. • To prepare archeological map including places where ancient relics exist. • To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources

7. Types of Surveying Classification

8. A. Primary Classification or Primary Division : 1. Plane surveying 2. Geodetic surveying

9. 1. Plane Surveying • The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus the surface is obviously curved. But in plane surveying the curvature of earth is not taken into account. This is because plane surveying is carried out over a small area, so the surface of the earth is considered as a plane. The degree of accuracy required in this type of surveying is completely low. Plane surveying is done on an area of less than 250 sq.km.

10. 2. Geodetic surveying • In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. It is extended over a large area greater than 250 sq.km. The line joining any two points considered as a curved line. Very refined methods and instruments are used in this type of surveying. In this method very high precision or accuracy is required.

11. B. Secondary Classification • Survey can be classified on different bases: 1. Based on instrument: • Chain Survey • Compass survey • Plane Table survey • Theodolite survey • Tacheometric Survey • Photographic survey

12. 2. Based on methods: • Triangulation Survey • Traverse Survey

13. 3. Based on Objects: • Geological survey • Mine survey • Archeological Survey • Military survey

14. 4. Based on nature of field • Land Survey • Marine survey • Astronomical survey

15. Other Types of Surveys: • Photogrammetry– mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or satellites. • Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners, boundaries, and areas of land parcels. • Control Surveying – establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as a reference framework for other survey projects. • Engineering Surveying – providing points and elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects.

16. Other Types of Surveys: • Topographic Surveying – collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations of natural man-made features and elevations of points of the ground for multiple uses. • Route Surveys – topographic and other surveys for long – narrow projects associated with Civil Engineering projects. • Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines. • Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water. • Also known as bathymetric surveying.

17. Brief History of Surveying: • Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC • Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed away by annual floods. • “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances). • Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments • Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry. • Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments – Diopter (a form of level).

18. Brief History of Surveying: • Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems. • Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization • Developed several instruments: • Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles • Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling • Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling • Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in Europe. • Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a graduated scale developed by an Italian named Von Piso.

19. Brief History of Surveying: • 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English. • 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections • 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System) • 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network and mapping • Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more.

20. Brief History of Surveying: • 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased, and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states. • Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990’s • Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping • Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information systems (GIS) • Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21st century

21. Measurement of Distance • Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be read precisely, the length of at least one line in a tract must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points. • Old surveys were often measured using a Surveyors Chain. These were literally chains made up of 100 links. Each Chain was 66 feet long. Each link was 0.666 of a foot.

22. Units of Measurement • Acre - The (English) acre is a unit of area equal to 43560 square feet, or 10 square chains. A square mile is 640 acres. The Scottish acre is 1.27 English acres. • Chain - Unit of length usually understood to be Gunter's chain, from the heavy metal chain of 100 links that was used by surveyors to measure property bounds.

23. Units of Measurement • Hectare - Metric unit of area equal to 10,000 square meters, or 2.471 acres. • Link - Unit of length equal to 1/100 chain (7.92 inches). • Rood -Unit of area usually equal to 1/4 acre. • Engineer's Chain - A 100 foot chain containing 100 links of one foot a piece.

24. Units of Measurement • Furlong - Unit of length equal to 40 poles (220 yards).

25. Methods of Measuring Distance • Direct Method of Measuring Distance: 1. Pacing: Where approximate result is required, distance may be determined by pacing. This method is used for reconnaissance survey, for preparation of military plans. Also used for approximate checking distance. The method consists of walking over a line and counting the number of paces (80cm) the required distance may be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average length of pace.

26. Methods of Measuring Distance • The length of pace varies with the: • Individual, age, height and physical condition • The nature of the ground (uphill and down hill) • The slope of the country and • The speed of pacing

27. Methods of Measuring Distance 2. Passometer: It is a pocket instrument. It automatically records the number of paces. It should be carried vertically, in waistcoat pocket or suspended from a button. The mechanism being operated by motion and strain of the body.

28. Methods of Measuring Distance • 3. Pedometer: • It is similar to passometer. But it registers the distance walked by the persons carrying it. The distance is read by means of an indicator. It is fitted with a stud or knob, which when pressed release indicator to zero, it may be carried in the same way as the passometer.

29. Methods of Measuring Distance 4. Odometer: It measures the distance approximately. It can be attached to the wheel of any vehicle, such as carriage, cart bicycle, etc. It registers the number of revolution of the wheel. Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the distance traversed may be obtained by multiplying the number of revolutions. By the circumference of the wheel

30. Methods of Measuring Distance 5. Speedometer: The Speedometer of an automobile may be used to measure distances approximately. It gives better results than pacing, provided the route is smooth.

31. Methods of Measuring Distance 6. Perambulator: It can measure distance rapidly. It consist a single wheel provided with forks and a handle. It is wheeled along the line, the length of which is desired. The distance traversed is automatically registered on the dial. The reading approximates on rough ground.

32. Methods of Measuring Distance 7. Judging distance: This is very rough method of determining distance. It is used reconnaissance survey. 8. Time Measurement: Distance is roughly determined by time intervals of travel. Knowing the average time per km for a person at walk or a horse, the distance traversed may be easily obtained.

33. Methods of Measuring Distance 9. Chaining: Measuring distance with chain or rope is the most accurate and common method, called as chaining. For work of ordinary precision a chain is used. Where great accuracy is required, a steel tape is used.

34. Measurement of Distance • Taping: applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of times. 2 Problems exist in Taping: • Measuring the distance between two existing points • Laying out a known distance with only the starting point in place

35. Measurement of Distance 6 Steps of Taping • Lining in – shortest distance between two points is a straight line. • Applying tension – rear chain is anchor and head chain applies required tension. • Plumbing – horizontal distance requires tape to be horizontal. • Marking tape lengths – each application of the tape requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total length. • Reading the tape – the graduated tape must be read correctly. • Recording the distance – the total length must be reported and recorded correctly.

36. Types of Chains and Tapes • Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks were cut into lengths of 16.5’ (Rod) and they were laid end to end to measure. • Gunter’s Chain • 66’ long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 0.66 feet long. • Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600’s in England and made with individual wires with a loop at each end connected • Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with hard use would wear and cause chain to elongate • Measurements were recorded in chains and links • 7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66’/ch = 524.37’ • 1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile

37. Types of Chains and Tapes • Engineer’s Chain • Same construction as Gunter’s Chain, but each link is 1.0’ long and was used for engineering projects • Surveyor’s and Engineer’s Tapes • Made of ¼” to 3/8” wide steel tapes in 100’; 200’; 300’ lengths

38. Types of Chains and Tapes • Invar Tapes • Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due to temperature changes • The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive • Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes • Cloth, Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes: • Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement of 0.1’ accuracy requirements Accessories • Chaining Pins – set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths • Hand Level – used to determine required plumbing height • Plumb Bob – used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground • Tension Handle – used to maintain correct tension on tape

39. Taping (Field Process) • The line to be taped should be marked at both ends • Keeps measurement on line • Rear chain person should keep the head chain person on line • 1’ of line error/100’ = 0.01’ error in length • Applying Tension • Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100’ mark over point • Tension is applied by head chain person – normally 12 to 30 pounds of pull • Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to compensate for sag

40. Taping (Field Process) • Plumbing • One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated • This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground • If a high spot exists in center, “break” tape by measuring to the top and then move forward to complete the distance

41. Slope Measurements: • Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but on even, often man-made slopes the distance can be measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or zenith angle must be obtained. • Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance • Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance

42. Taping Error: • Instrumental Error – a tape may have different length due to defect in manufacture or repair or as the result of kinks • Natural Error – length of tape varies from normal due to temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag) • Personal Error – tape person may be careless in setting pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment • Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but personal error can only be corrected by remeasure. • When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked against a standard. • Tapes standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland • Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.

43. Tape Error Correction: • Measuring between two existing points: • If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any correction must be added • If tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any correction must be subtracted • If you are setting or establishing a point, the above rule is reversed. Generally can correct for tape length, temperature, tension, and sag, but tension and sag are negated by increasing tension to approximately 25 – 30 lbs.

44. Error in Taping: • Tape Length: Correction per foot = Error in 100’/100’ • If tape was assumed to be 100.00’ but when standardized was found to be 100.02’ after distance measured at 565.75’ • then: Correction =(100.02-100.00)/100.00 = 0.0002’ error/ft • 565.75’ X .0002’/’ = 0.11’ correction and based upon rule, must be added, thus true distance = 565.86’ • If tape had been 99.98’ then correction would be subtracted and true distance would be 565.64’

45. Error in Taping: • Temperature – Tapes in U.S. are standardized at 68F; the temperature difference above or below that will change the length of the tape • Tapes have a relatively constant coefficient of expansion of 0.0000065 per unit length per F • CT = 0.0000065(Temp (F)-68) Length • Example: Assume a distance was measured when temperature was 30°F using a 100’ tape was 872.54’ (68 – 30) X 0.00000645 X 872.54’ = 0.21’ error tape is short, thus distance is long, error must be subtracted and thus 872.54’ – 0.21’ = 872.33’ (note: temperature difference is absolute difference)

46. Surveying Metric Conversion • 1 Survey Foot = 1200 / 3937 meters • 1 Meter = 3937 / 1200 Survey Feet

47. Transit • Transit is the most universal of surveying instruments – primary use is for measurement or layout of horizontal and vertical angles – also used to determine vertical and horizontal distance by stadia, prolonging straight lines, and low-order leveling. 3 Components of the Transit • Alidade – Upper part • Horizontal limb – Middle part • Leveling-head assembly – Lower part

48. Transit • Alidade (upper part) • Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid conical shaft called the inner spindle. • Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle • Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS • Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the compass box, the telescope and its level vial

49. Transit