MAE 1202: AEROSPACE PRACTICUM

1. MAE 1202: AEROSPACE PRACTICUM Lecture 7: Compressible Flow Review and Overview of Airfoils March 11, 2013 Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department Florida Institute of Technology D. R. Kirk

2. UDPATES • Mid-term grades • Team project: Introduced in Laboratory this week • Mid-Term Exam: Monday, March 18, 2013 in class • Covers Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.1 – 5.7 • Open book / open notes… but no time to study during the exam • No computers, cell phones, etc. • Sample Mid-Term with Solution on line • Review Session: Thursday, March 14, 2013, Crawford Science Tower, Room 112, 8 – 10 pm • AIAA Meeting/Fund Raiser Friday, March 15, 2013, 7:00 pm – 11:00 pm, Buffalo Wild Wings (Palm Bay Road)

3. READING AND HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS • Reading: Introduction to Flight, by John D. Anderson, Jr. • For March 25, 2013 lecture: Chapter 5, Sections 5.13-5.19 • Read these sections carefully, most interesting portions of Ch. 5 • Lecture-Based Homework Assignment: • Problems: 5.7, 5.11, 5.13, 5.15, 5.17, 5.19 • DUE: Friday, March 29, 2013 by 5pm • Turn in hard copy of homework • Also be sure to review and be familiar with textbook examples in Chapter 5

4. ANSWERS TO LECTURE HOMEWORK • 5.7: Cp = -3.91 • 5.11: Cp = -0.183 • Be careful here, if you check the Mach number it is around 0.71, so the flow is compressible and the formula for Cp based on Bernoulli’s equation is not valid. To calculate the pressure coefficient, first calculate r∞ from the equation of state and find the temperature from the energy equation. Finally make use of the isentropic relations and the definition of Cp given in Equation 5.27 • 5.13: cl = 0.97 • Make use of Prandtl-Glauert rule • 5.15: Mcr = 0.62 • Use graphical technique of Section 5.9 • Verify using Excel or Matlab • 5.17:m = 30° • 5.19: D = 366 lb • Remember that in steady, level flight the airplane’s lift must balance its weight • You may also assume that all lift is derived from the wings (this is not really true because the fuselage and horizontal tail also contribute to the airplane lift). Also assume that the wings can be approximated by a thin flat plate • Remember that Equation 5.50 gives a in radians

5. HOMEWORK EXAMPLES • Can you read this? • Who would you hire?

6. MODERN ART?

7. Compressible Flow Applications

8. SUMMARY OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS (4.8)STEADY AND INVISCID FLOW • Incompressible flow of fluid along a streamline or in a stream tube of varying area • Most important variables: p and V • T and r are constants throughout flow continuity Bernoulli continuity • Compressible, isentropic (adiabatic and frictionless) flow along a streamline or in a stream tube of varying area • T, p, r, and V are all variables isentropic energy equation of state at any point

9. MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW • If M > 0.3, flow is compressible (density changes are important) • Need to introduce energy equation and isentropic relations cp: specific heat at constant pressure M1=V1/a1 gair=1.4

10. EXAMPLE: TOTAL TEMPERATURE • A rocket is flying at Mach 6 through a portion of the atmosphere where the static temperature is 200 K • What temperature does the nose of the rocket ‘feel’? • T0 = 200(1+ 0.2(36)) = 1,640 K! Total temperature Static temperature Vehicle flight Mach number

11. MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW • So, how do we use these results to measure airspeed p0 and p1 give Flight Mach number Mach meter M1=V1/a1 Actual Flight Speed Actual Flight Speed using pressure difference What is T1 and a1? Again use sea-level conditions Ts, as, ps (a1=340.3 m/s)

12. MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:SUPERSONIC FLOW • What can happen in supersonic flows? • Supersonic flows (M > 1) are qualitatively and quantitatively different from subsonic flows (M < 1)

13. HOW AND WHY DOES A SHOCK WAVE FORM? • Think of a as ‘information speed’ and M=V/a as ratio of flow speed to information speed • If M < 1 information available throughout flow field • If M > 1 information confined to some region of flow field

14. MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:SUPERSONIC FLOW Notice how different this expression is from previous expressions You will learn a lot more about shock wave in compressible flow course

15. SUMMARY OF AIR SPEED MEASUREMENT • Subsonic, incompressible • Subsonic, compressible • Supersonic

16. HOW ARE ROCKET NOZZLES SHAPPED?

17. MORE ON SUPERSONIC FLOWS (4.13) Isentropic flow in a streamtube Differentiate Euler’s Equation Since flow is isentropic a2=dp/dr Area-Velocity Relation

18. CONSEQUENCES OF AREA-VELOCITY RELATION • IF Flow is Subsonic (M < 1) • For V to increase (dV positive) area must decrease (dA negative) • Note that this is consistent with Euler’s equation for dV and dp • IF Flow is Supersonic (M > 1) • For V to increase (dV positive) area must increase (dA positive) • IF Flow is Sonic (M = 1) • M = 1 occurs at a minimum area of cross-section • Minimum area is called a throat (dA/A = 0)

19. TRENDS: CONTRACTION 2: OUTLET 1: INLET M1 < 1 M1 > 1 V2 > V1 V2 < V1

20. TRENDS: EXPANSION 2: OUTLET 1: INLET M1 < 1 M1 > 1 V2 < V1 V2 > V1

21. PUT IT TOGETHER: C-D NOZZLE 2: OUTLET 1: INLET

22. MORE ON SUPERSONIC FLOWS (4.13) • A converging-diverging, with a minimum area throat, is necessary to produce a supersonic flow from rest Rocket nozzle Supersonic wind tunnel section

23. Chapter 5 Overview

24. HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT? • Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of airfoil (or wing) • If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated • Why is pressure lower on top surface? • We can understand answer from basic physics: • Continuity (Mass Conservation) • Newton’s 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation) Lift = PA

25. HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT? • Flow velocity over top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface • Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction • Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area • Mass continuity rAV=constant: IF A↓ THEN V↑ Streamtube A is squashed most in nose region (ahead of maximum thickness) A B

26. HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT? • As V ↑ p↓ • Incompressible: Bernoulli’s Equation • Compressible: Euler’s Equation • Called Bernoulli Effect • With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface, airfoil feels a net force in upward direction → Lift Most of lift is produced in first 20-30% of wing (just downstream of leading edge) Can you express these ideas in your own words?

27. AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS Why do airfoils have such a shape? How are lift and drag produced? NACA airfoil performance data How do we design? What is limit of behavior?

28. AIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANES English Sopwith Camel Thin wing, lower maximum CL Bracing wires required – high drag German Fokker Dr-1 Higher maximum CL Internal wing structure Higher rates of climb Improved maneuverability

29. AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE • Mean Chamber Line:Set of points halfway between upper and lower surfaces • Measured perpendicular to mean chamber line itself • Leading Edge:Most forward point of mean chamber line • Trailing Edge:Most reward point of mean chamber line • Chord Line:Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges • Chord, c:Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge • Chamber:Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line • Measured perpendicular to chord line

30. NACA FOUR-DIGIT SERIES • First digit specifies maximum camber in percentage of chord • Second digit indicates position of maximum camber in tenths of chord • Last two digits provide maximum thickness of airfoil in percentage of chord Example: NACA 2415 • Airfoil has maximum thickness of 15% of chord (0.15c) • Camber of 2% (0.02c) located 40% back from airfoil leading edge (0.4c) NACA 2415

31. WHAT CREATES AERODYNAMIC FORCES? (2.2) • Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two sources: • Pressure, p, distribution on surface • Acts normal to surface • Shear stress, tw, (friction) on surface • Acts tangentially to surface • Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m2) • Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force “No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that exist on the surface.” “The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature that reach out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body – the aerodynamic force”

32. RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE • Relative Wind: Direction of V∞ • We use subscript ∞ to indicate far upstream conditions • Angle of Attack, a:Angle between relative wind (V∞) and chord line • Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components • Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind • Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind

33. MORE DEFINITIONS • Total aerodynamic force on airfoil is summation of F1 and F2 • Lift is obtained when F2 > F1 • Misalignment of F1 and F2 creates Moments, M, which tend to rotate airfoil/wing • A moment (torque) is a force times a distance • Value of induced moment depends on point about which moments are taken • Moments about leading edge, MLE, or quarter-chord point, c/4, Mc/4 • In general MLE≠ Mc/4 F1 F2

34. VARIATION OF L, D, AND M WITH a • Lift, Drag, and Moments on a airfoil or wing will change as a changes • Variations of these quantities are some of most important information that an airplane designer needs to know • Aerodynamic Center • Point about which moments essentially do not vary with a • Mac=constant (independent of a) • For low speed airfoils aerodynamic center is near quarter-chord point, c/4

35. AOA = 2°

36. AOA = 3°

37. AOA = 6°

38. AOA = 9°

39. AOA = 12°

40. AOA = 20°

41. AOA = 60°

42. AOA = 90°

43. SAMPLE DATA: SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL Lift (for now) Angle of Attack, a A symmetric airfoil generates zero lift at zero a

44. SAMPLE DATA: CAMBERED AIRFOIL Lift (for now) Angle of Attack, a A cambered airfoil generates positive lift at zero a

45. SAMPLE DATA • Lift coefficient (or lift) linear variation with angle of attack, a • Cambered airfoils have positive lift when a = 0 • Symmetric airfoils have zero lift when a = 0 • At high enough angle of attack, the performance of the airfoil rapidly degrades → stall Lift (for now) Cambered airfoil has lift at a=0 At negative a airfoil will have zero lift

46. SAMPLE DATA: STALL BEHAVIOR Lift (for now) What is really going on here What is stall? Can we predict it? Can we design for it?

47. REAL EFFECTS: VISCOSITY (m) • To understand drag and actual airfoil/wing behavior we need an understanding of viscous flows (all real flows have friction) • Inviscid (frictionless) flow around a body will result in zero drag! • This is called d’Alembert’s paradox • Must include friction (viscosity, m) in theory • Flow adheres to surface because of friction between gas and solid boundary • At surface flow velocity is zero, called ‘No-Slip Condition’ • Thin region of retarded flow in vicinity of surface, called a ‘Boundary Layer’ • At outer edge of B.L., V∞ • At solid boundary, V=0 “The presence of friction in the flow causes a shear stress at the surface of a body, which, in turn contributes to the aerodynamic drag of the body: skin friction drag” p.219, Section 4.20

48. TYPES OF FLOWS: FRICTION VS. NO-FRICTION Flow very close to surface of airfoil is Influenced by friction and is viscous (boundary layer flow) Stall (separation) is a viscous phenomena Flow away from airfoil is not influenced by friction and is wholly inviscid

49. COMMENTS ON VISCOUS FLOWS (4.15)

50. THE REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re • One of most important dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics/ aerodynamics • Reynolds number is ratio of two forces: • Inertial Forces • Viscous Forces • c is length scale (chord) • Reynolds number tells you when viscous forces are important and when viscosity may be neglected Within B.L. flow highly viscous (low Re) Outside B.L. flow Inviscid (high Re)