The Major Child Development Theorists

1. Montessori – Piaget – Vygotsky – Erikson – Skinner – Bandura – Maslow - Kohlberg The Major Child Development Theorists

2. Behaviorist Theory • Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.

3. Constructivist Theory • The belief that learning is an active process in which learners construct their own meaning based on prior knowledge and experience

4. Cognitivist Theory • A response to the problems with the behaviorist theory • Belief that the mind is a “black box” • Learning is explained as a “recall” of stored information. • Instruction usually grabs the attention of learners and helps make sense of the information so it can be more readily stored (learned) for later recall.

5. Social Learning Theory • People learn from one another, via observation, imitating and modeling. • It has been called the bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it includes attention, memory and motivation

6. Jean Piaget Primary Components of Jean Piaget’s 4-Stage Model

7. Important Concepts within Piaget’s Model • Schemes: Mental model of the world that we use to represent, organize, and interpret our experiences • Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into an existing scheme • Accommodation: Changing or modifying a scheme in order to incorporate a new experience

8. Four Major Stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development • Sensorimotor (0-2 years) • Preoperational (2-7 years) • Concrete Operations (7-11 years) • Formal Operations (12+ years)

9. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) • Infant’s world consists of the immediate environment • Interact and learn by sensory input (hearing, feeling, seeing) with motor capabilities • Gradually learn to control their own bodies and objects in the external world • The ultimate task at this stage is to achieve the sense that objects go on existing even when we cannot see them (Object Constancy/Permanence).

10. Preoperational Stage (2-6/7 years) • Developing ability to manipulate images and symbols, especially language • Play becomes key in learning. Begin to see use of symbolism in pretend play (e.g. Use a broomstick as a“horsey”). • Child’s view of the world is egocentric. • Logical organization of thoughts remains undeveloped (e.g. unable to apply principles of conservation).

11. Concrete Operations (6/7-12 Years) • Perform logical operations, but only in relation to concrete objects, not abstract ideas. • Basic math skills developed (counting, addition, subtraction) as well as an understanding of conservation. • Can sort items into categories, reverse the direction of their thinking, and think about two concepts simultaneously. • Able to understand a situation from another person’s perspective.

12. Conservation • Refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container shape or apparent size

13. Formal Operations (12+ years) • Begin to think logically and abstractly, including speculations about what might happen in the future • Theoretical, philosophical, and scientific reasoning becomes possible. • Abstract concepts and moral values become as important as concrete objects. • With these newly developed thinking abilities, adolescents begin to reinterpret and revise their knowledge base.

14. Lev Vygotsky

15. Vygotsky • Different than Piaget’s image of the individual constructing understanding alone • Everything is social • Vygotsky saw cognitive development as depending more on interactions with people & toolsin the child’s world. • Tools are real: pens, paper, computers; • or Tools are symbols: language, math systems, signs

16. The Big Ideas… • Explained complex learning through Guided Participation. • Explained things that are taught rather than discovered (reading, writing etc.) • a way to “share the thinking load” • Helping a novice accomplish a complex task • Assistance can be physical or mental & come from adults or peers • Scaffolding: where the more knowledgeable other provides some type of structure.

17. The Big Ideas… • Vygotsky developed the theory of the Zone of proximal development (ZPD) • The distance between where a learner is at developmentally on their own & where a learner could be with the help of a more knowledgeable other. • A more knowledgeable othercan be an adult or a peer, helping a learner in this way is to scaffold their learning. Scaffolding occurs through the process of internalization… mediated by language and thought.

18. Examples of Guided Participation • A mother sitting with her toddler singing,“Baa, baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir, yes sir ….” at this point the mother pauses and the child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!.” • How is this guided participation?

19. Examples of Guided Participation • A 6-year old lost a toy & asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy. The child says, I can’t remember.” He asks a series of questions – “Did you have it in your room? Outside?” To each question the child answers“No.” When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I think so”and finds the toy in the car. • In this story, who found the toy?

20. Examples of Guided Participation • Think back to your days of driver’s ed. and driving around with your parents with your temporary driver’s license. • In what ways did your parent or driving instructor provide guided participation for you?

21. Vygotsky and Schools • Emphasized social learning • We can often complete harder tasks with someone else than we could alone. • Collaborative learning, group presentations, group work • Zone of Proximal Development • The teacher considers how much scaffolding to give a student to help them learn. • A push for“authentic learning” • Learning is tied to the context it is in.

22. Motivation & Vygotsky • This view emphasizes how people’s identities are formed by their participation in a group. • Students can be motivated to learn by participating in communities where learning is valued. • Ex: Children want to learn to read & write to become members of the“literary club” and to be able to participate and interact with the written world.

23. Vygotsky’s Words… • “It is through others that we become ourselves.” • All learning is social • “What a child can do in co-operation today he can do alone tomorrow.” • Guided participation, ZPD, scaffolding

24. Maria Montessori

25. Key Goals of a Montessori Education • To foster competent, responsible, adaptive citizens who are lifelong learners and problem solvers • To promote learning in an inquiring, cooperative, nurturing atmosphere through self and teacher initiated experiences • To support learning through the senses, by manipulating materials and interacting with others, leading to the abstract understanding of ideas

26. Key Goals Continued • To consider the individual as a whole: physical, emotional, social, aesthetic, spiritual, and cognitive needs are inseparable • To respect oneself, others, the environment, and all life • Infuse both joy AND challenge in learning • Nurture a child’s mind AND spirit • Supports a child’s abilities AND interests

27. Seguin’s Three Step Lesson • Naming (Introduction) – “This is a dog.” • Recognizing (Identification) – “Show me the dog.” • Remembering (Cognition) – “What is this?” • Once they can remember it, they have learned it.

28. Children have such absorbent minds.

29. Casa Dei Bambini • The first ‘children’s house.” • The Montessori Method is born.

30. Montessori’s Four Planes • Each plane is marked by physical, social, and psychological characteristics. • The argument of traditional education vs. education based on stages of human development

31. Linear vs. Peaks & Valleys • Traditional education is based on the assumption of linear development. • Montessori education is geared to the peaks and valleys of human development.

32. First Plane: Birth to Age 6 • Development of the self • Sensitive periods • The senses are developing.

33. Second Plane: Age 6 to 12 • Developing sense of morality and justice • Intellectual period • Development of reasoning skills: “How?” and “Why?” questions

34. Third Plane: Age 12 to 18 • Needs in adolescence are similar to those in early childhood: the formation of the self

35. Fourth Plane: Age 18 to 24 • Adulthood: role in society, experiences that expand human potential

36. The Prepared Environment • The learning environment should be designed to facilitate independentlearning and exploration of the child. • The prepared environment is a calm, ordered, aesthetically pleasing space designed to meet the child’s needs and interests.

37. The Prepared Environment • The prepared environment consists of a wide variety of multisensory learning materials that are organized by different curriculum areas: Sensorial, Practical Life, Language, Math, Cultural and Science. • Materials are organized in a sequence that begins with the simplest, most concreterepresentation of the subject matter, making a gradual progression to the abstract.

38. The Prepared Environment • The Montessori prepared environment consists of three kinds of materials: • Materials through which a child can develop his skills for independenceand academic knowledge • Art materials (including writing tools) for the expression of self • Materials for the maintenance of the classroom so a child can develop pride and responsibility for his own environment

39. The Montessori Teacher • The Montessori teacher (originally called a “Directress”) acts as a: • designer of the environment • facilitator of learning • Role model • record keeper, and • meticulous observerof each child’s intellectual, social, and emotional growth.

40. The Prepared Environment • The less tangible aspects of the Montessori prepared environment are the factors that nurture the child’s social and emotional growth: • Strong sense of community • Deep respect for child as an individual • Multi-age classroom structure • Freedom within limits

41. How Do Children Learn? • Children learn by doing. • Children learn from each other. • Children learn best in an atmosphere of: • mutual respect • trust, and • encouragement.

42. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

43. Moral Development • Moral developmentis the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behavior.

44. Moral Dilemmas • Social issues with 2+ solutions What was Robin Hood’s moral dilemma?

45. Kohlberg's Theory • This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage. • However, movement through these stages are not natural, that is people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they mature. In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma. • According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. For example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.

46. Kohlberg’s Six Stages Pre-Conventional Moral Development • Stage 1 • Stage 2 Conventional Moral Development • Stage 3 • Stage 4 Post-Conventional Moral Development • Stage 5 • Stage 6

47. Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0-9 years Stage 1 - Obedience and PunishmentEspecially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. • Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment • Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished • Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain • Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being Stage 2 – Naively EgotisticalAt this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests. • Is motivated by vengeance or“an eye for an eye” philosophy • Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous • Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need • Believes that the end justifies the means • Will do a favor only to get a favor • Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

48. Level 2: Conventional Morality 10-15 years Stage 3 – “Good Boy-Good Girl” Orientation This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. • Finds peer approval very important • Feels that intensions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds • Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective Stage 4 – Law and Social OrderAt this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority. • Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed • Respects authority and obeys it without question • Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority • Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4

49. Level 3: Postconventional Morality – 16+ Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. • Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people • Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule • Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual • Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system Stage 6 – Universal Ethical PrinciplesKolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. • Believes that there are higher moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs • Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected • Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value

50. The Heinz Dilemma: A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.