SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY MBA-III COMMON

1. SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYMBA-III (COMMON) MB0034 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. UNIT-1 An introduction to Research Methodology Research- Research simply means a search for facts-answers to questions and solutions to problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the misconceived facts.

3. Young defines Research as “ a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques, aim to: Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and casual explanations Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed elations among natural phenomena.”

4. Research and Scientific Method The scientific method is based on certain “articles of faith.” these are: Reliance on Empirical Evidence Use of relevant concepts Commitment of Objectivity Ethical Neutrality Generalization Verifiability Logical Reasoning Process

5. Characteristics of Research It is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon It is a purposive investigation aiming at describing, interpreting and explaining a phenomenon It adopts scientific method It is objective an logical, applying possible test to validate the measuring tools and the conclusions reached It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories The purpose of research is not only to arrive at an answer but also stand up the test of criticism

6. Purpose of Research Research extends knowledge of human beings , social life and environment. The search is for answers for various types of questions: What, Where, When, How and Why of various phenomena, and enlighten us. Research establishes generalization and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge Research brings to light information that might never be discovered fully during the ordinary course of life

7. Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and these help improving our knowledge and ability to handle different situations General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen Research aims to analyze interrelationship between variables and to derive causal e explanations thus enable us to have better understanding of the world Applied research aims at finding solutions to solving problems viz. socio economic problems, health problems, human relations problems etc. Research aids planning and thus contributes to national development .

8. TYPES OF RESEARCH Pure Research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision it is thus problem oriented and action directed. Exploratory research which is also known as formulative research is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge

9. Descriptive study is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation Diagnostic study is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus Evaluation studies is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programs implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project areas Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variable constant or controlled Analytical study is a procedure or techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It is also known statistical method Historical research is study of past result and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution and discovering the trends in the past

10. Actions research is a concurrent evaluation study of an action program launched on solving a problem for improving an existing situation. Diagnosis Sharing of diagnostic information Planning Developing change program Initiation of organizational change Implementation of participation and communication process Post experimental evaluation Survey is a fact finding study which involves collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time.

11. UNIT-2 SELECTION & FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM Research really begins when the researcher experience some difficulty, i.e. a problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general area of interest, however, defines only the range of subject-matter within which the researcher would see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape the preference of investigation in a subtle an d imperceptible way.

12. R.L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable guidance in identifying problem for research. He visualizes five components of a problem. Research-consumer Research-consumer's Objectives Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives There must be One of More environments to which the difficulty or problem pertains

13. Choosing the Problem The sources from which one may be able to identify research problems or develop problems awareness : Review of literature Academic experience Daily experience Exposure to field situations Consultations Brain storming Research Intuition

14. Formulating the problem The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. Which may be grouped into: Internal Criteria External Criteria

15. Internal Criteria Researcher’s Interest Researcher’s Competence Researcher’s own resources

16. External Criteria Research-ability of the problem Importance and urgency Novelty of the problem Feasibility Facilities Usefulness and social relevance Research personnel

17. Objective of Formulating the Problem A problem well put is half-solved. The primary task of research is collection of relevant data and the analysis of data for finding answers to the research questions. The proper performance of this task depends upon the identification of exact data and information required for the study. The formulation serves this purpose. The clear and accurate statement of the problem, that development of the conceptual model, the definition of the objectives of the study, the setting of investigative questions, the formulation of hypothesis to be tested and the operational definitions of concepts and the delimitations of the study determined the exact data needs of the study.

18. Process of Defining the Problem Developing title Building a conceptual model Define the objective of the study

19. Criteria of Good Research Problem Verifiable evidence Accuracy Precision Systematization Objectivity Recording Controlling conditions Training Investigators

20. UNIT-3 HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis consists either of a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena.The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A Hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement with an explanation following it.

21. Characteristics of Good Hypothesis Conceptual clarity Specificity Testability Availability of techniques Theoretical relevance Consistency Objectivity Simplicity

22. Types of Hypothesis Causal hypothesis Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis

23. Concepts of Hypothesis Testing The level of Significance Decision Rule of Test of Hypothesis

24. Type I & Type II Errors Type I error, also known as an "error of the first kind", an a error, or a "false positive": the error of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually true. Plainly speaking, it occurs when we are observing a difference when in truth there is none. Type I error can be viewed as the error of excessive credulity. Type II error, also known as an "error of the second kind", a ß error, or a "false negative": the error of failing to reject a null hypothesis when it is in fact not true. In other words, this is the error of failing to observe a difference when in truth there is one. Type II error can be viewed as the error of excessive skepticism.

25. Procedure for testing Hypothesis Making a formal statement Selecting a significant level Deciding the distribution to use Selecting a random sample & computing an appropriate value Calculation of the probability Comparing the probability

26. Testing of Hypothesis Z-test:It is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures, particularly the Mean. T-test:It is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of sample mean etc. when population variance is not known. X2-test:It is based on chi-square and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance is unknown. F-test:It is based on f-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples.

27. UNIT-4 RESEARCH DESIGN A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions.

28. RESEARCH DESIGN According to Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe, “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations.

29. Characteristics of a Good Research Design It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. It reduces wastage of time and cost. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits.

30. Components of Research Design Dependent and Independent variables Extraneous Variable Control Research hypothesis Experimental and control groups Treatments Experiment Experiment Unit

31. Experimental & Non-Experimental Hypothesis Testing Research Hypothesis-Testing Research: When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis. Experimental hypothesis testing research: A research in which the independent variable is manipulated. Non-experimental hypothesis testing research: A research in which the independent variable is not manipulated.

32. Research Design in case of Exploratory Research Studies Exploratory research studies are also termed as Formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view.The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.The three methods in the context of research design are: The Survey of concerning literature Experience survey Analyses of insight-stimulating.

33. Research Design in case of Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Studies Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else.From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements.In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to study.

34. The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability.With due concern for the economical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following: Formulating the objective of the study Designing the methods of data collection Selecting the sample Collecting the data Processing and analyzing the data Reporting the findings

35. Research Design in case of Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies Hypothesis-testing research studies generally known as experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.Usually, experiments meet these requirements. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.

36. Principles of Experimental Designs The Principle of Replication The Principle of randomization Principle of local control

37. Important Experimental Designs Before and After without control design After only with control design Before and after with control design Formal Experimental Designs Completely Randomized design(CR design) Randomized block design (RB design) Latin square design (LS design) Factorial design

38. UNIT-5 CASE STUDY A case study is one of several ways of doing research whether it is social science related or even socially related. It is an intensive study of a single group, incident, or community.Other ways include experiments, surveys, multiple histories, and analysis of archival information. Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.

39. Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data. This is also supported and well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking techniques and methodological paradigms."

40. CASE SELECTION When selecting a case for a case study, researchers often use information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling. This is because the typical or average case is often not the richest in information. Extreme or atypical cases reveal more information because they activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation studied. In addition, from both an understanding-oriented and an action-oriented perspective, it is often more important to clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences than to describe the symptoms of the problem and how frequently they occur. Random samples emphasizing representative ness will seldom be able to produce this kind of insight; it is more appropriate to select some few cases chosen for their validity.

41. CASE SELECTION Three types of information-oriented cases may be distinguished: Extreme or deviant cases Critical cases Paradigmatic cases.

42. ASSUMPTIONS Cases selected based on dimensions of a theory (pattern-matching) or on diversity on a dependent phenomenon (explanation-building). No generalization to a population beyond cases similar to those studied. Conclusions should be phrased in terms of model elimination, not model validation. Numerous alternative theories may be consistent with data gathered from a case study. Case study approaches have difficulty in terms of evaluation of low-probability causal paths in a model as any given case selected for study may fail to display such a path, even when it exists in the larger population of potential cases.

43. MAKING CASE STUDY EFFECTIVE The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify the community values, standards and their shared way of life. The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.

44. The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behavior must never be overlooked. The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are specially fruitful. The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between the person’s various experiences.

45. Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a person’s life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations. The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual framework, this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

46. UNIT-6 SAMPLING A part of population is known as sample. The method consisting of the selecting for study, a portion of the ‘universe’ with a view to draw conclusions about the ‘universe’ or ‘population’ is known as sampling. A statistical sample ideally purports to be a miniature model or replica of the collectivity or the population constituted of all the items that the study should principally encompass, that is, the items which potentially hold promise of affording information relevant to the purpose of a given research. Sampling helps in time and cost saving. It also helps in checking their accuracy. But on the other hand it demands exercise of great care caution; otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading.

47. Advantages of Sample Survey The size of the population Amount of funds budgeted for the study Facilities Time

48. Sampling Procedure Purpose of the survey Measurability Degree of precision Information about population The nature of the population Geographical area of the study and the size of the population Financial resources Time limitation Economy

49. Characteristics of a Good Sample Representative ness Accuracy Precision Size

50. METHODS OF SAMPLING Probability or Random Sampling A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection.

51. Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from each household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random number, generated from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number in each household). We then interview the selected person and find their income.

52. People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add their income to our estimate of the total. But a person living in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of selection. To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the selected person's income twice towards the total. (In effect, the person who is selected from that household is taken as representing the person who isn't selected.)

53. In the above example, not everybody has the same probability of selection; what makes it a probability sample is the fact that each person's probability is known. When every element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.

54. Non-Probability Sampling Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions place limits on how much information a sample can provide about the population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.

55. Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

56. Types of Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling:In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.

57. However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population. For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to overrepresent one sex and underrepresent the other. Systematic and stratified techniques, discussed below, attempt to overcome this problem by using information about the population to choose a more representative sample. SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in research questions specific to subgroups of the population. For example, researchers might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance is equally applicable across racial groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of researchers in this situation because it does not provide sub samples of the population. Stratified sampling, which is discussed below, addresses this weakness of SRS.

58. Stratified random Sampling Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling. Stratification process involves three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number of strata and strata sample sizes. Example: University students may be divided on the basis of discipline, and each discipline group may again be divided into juniors and seniors.

59. Systematic sampling Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

60. Cluster Sampling It means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements.Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random selection.Where the population elements are scattered over a wide area and a list of population elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method would be too expensive and time-consuming.In such cases Cluster Sampling is usually adopted. The cluster sampling process involves: Identify clusters, examine the nature of clusters, and determine the number of stages.

61. Multi-stage and Sub-sampling Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are imbedded one in the other. The first stage consists of constructing the clusters that will be used to sample from. In the second stage, a sample of primary units is randomly selected from each cluster (rather than using all units contained in all selected clusters). In following stages, in each of those selected clusters, additional samples of units are selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance) selected at the last step of this procedure are then surveyed.

62. This technique, thus, is essentially the process of taking random samples of preceding random samples. It is not as effective as true random sampling, but it probably solves more of the problems inherent to random sampling. Moreover, It is an effective strategy because it banks on multiple randomizations. As such, it is extremely useful. Multistage sampling is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate. Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated traditional cluster sampling.

63. Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size The procedure of selecting clusters with probability Proportional to size (PPS) is widely used. If one primary cluster has twice as large a population as another, it is give twice the chance of being selected. If the same number of persons is then selected from each of the selected clusters, the overall probability of any person will be the same. Thus PPS is a better method for securing a representative sample of population elements in multi-stage cluster sampling.

64. Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling It refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger sample that provides information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended to more than two phases of selection, it is called multi-phase sampling. This is also known as sequencing sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases.

65. Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population.The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-sampling errors.But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

66. Convenience or Accidental Sampling It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion e.g. interviewing people whom we happen to meet.This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available e.g.a teacher may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally are included in the sample.

67. Purposive (or judgment) Sampling: this method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling.This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgment of the researcher.

68. Quota Sampling: It is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class etc.It is method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non-random. Snow-Ball Sampling: It is the colorful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants.

69. UNIT-7 SOURCES OF DATA Data refers to information or facts usually collected as the result of experience, observation or experiment, or processes within a computer system, or premises. Data may consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements or observations of a set of variables. The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into: a) Data pertaining to human beings, b) data relating to organization and c) Data pertaining to territorial areas.

70. Personal Data Demographic and Socio-economic characteristics of individual:Age, sex, Race, social class, Religion, Marital status, education, occupation, income, family size, life style etc. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions etc. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development etc.of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation.

71. Sources of Data Raw data is a term for unprocessed data, it is also known as primary data.. Raw data can be input to a computer program or used in manual analysis procedures such as gathering statistics from a survey.It is the original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected.Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.

72. Advantages of Primary Data It is the original source of data It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher Extensive research study is based of primary data

73. Disadvantages of Primary Data Primary data is expensive to obtain It is time consuming It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled It is difficult to administer

74. Methods of Collecting Primary Data There are various methods of data collection. A ‘method’ is different from a ‘tool’ while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are: Observation Interviewing Mail survey Experimentation Simulation Projective technique

75. Secondary Sources of Data Secondary data is collecting and possibly processing data by people other than the researcher in question. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, large surveys, and organizational records. Secondary data analysis is commonly known as second-hand analysis. It is simply the analysis of preexisting data in a different way or to answer a different question than originally intended. Secondary data analysis utilizes the data that was collected by someone else in order to further a study that you are interested in completing.

76. Secondary Sources of Data There are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g. census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, statistical statements, reports of Government Departments. Annual reports of currency and finance published by the reserve bank of India , statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional banks, published by the NABARD etc.

77. Features of Secondary Sources They are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them. They consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a features which can limit the research value of secondary sources. Secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, there searcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

78. Use of Secondary Data Specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose.E.g. The general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc. It is used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested.e.g. the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on. It may be used as the sole surface of information for a research project. Such studies as securities Market Behavior, Financial Analysis of companies etc.

79. Advantages of Secondary Data Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and time reach. The use of secondary data broadens the data from which scientific generalizations can be made. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data.It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

80. Disadvantages of Secondary Data It is not necessary that available data may meet our specific needs. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to know how the data were collected. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them.For example: population census data are published two or three years later after compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten years. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists.Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity.For example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

81. Evaluation of Secondary Data Data Pertinence Data Quality Data Completeness THANKS……………….

82. UNIT-8 OBSERVATION Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any datum collected during this activity.

83. Observation as a Scientific Method The scientific method requires observations of nature to formulate and test hypotheses. It consists of these steps: Asking a question about a natural phenomenon Making observations of the phenomenon Hypothesizing an explanation for the phenomenon Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis Testing the prediction in a controlled experiment, a natural experiment, an observational study, or a field experiment Creating a conclusion with data gathered in the experiment

84. Observation plays a role in the second and fifth steps. However the need for reproducibility requires that observations by different observers be comparable. Human sense impressions are subjective and qualitative making them difficult to record or compare. The idea of measurement evolved to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places by different people. Measurement consists of using observation to compare the thing being measured to a standard; an artifact, process or definition which can be duplicated or shared by all observers, and counting how many of the standard units are comparable to the object. Measurement reduces an observation to a number which can be recorded, and two observations which result in the same number are equal within the resolution of the process.

85. Human senses are limited, and are subject to errors in perception such as optical illusions. Scientific instruments were developed to magnify human powers of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by human senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, MRI machines, radio telescopes, and DNA sequencers. One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the process was unobserved. For example, it is not possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, changing the pressure. However, in most fields of science it is possible to reduce the effects of observation to insignificance by using better instruments.

86. "Observer" personality trait People with "Observer" personalities are motivated by the desire to understand the facts about the world around them. Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Observers have learned to withdraw themselves, to watch with keen eyes, and to speak only when they think they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. However, some Observers are known to withdraw completely from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contacts with abrasive cynicism. Observers generally fear in competency and uselessness; they want to be capable and knowledgeable above all else.

87. UNIT-9 SCHEDULE & QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE: A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

88. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical.

89. Questionnaire construction Question types Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

90. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished: Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options (bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale A respondent's answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards.

91. Types of Questionnaires Structured/ Standardized questionnaire Unstructured questionnaire

92. Modes of sending Questionnaires Personal delivery Attaching questionnaire to a product Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper of magazine News stand insets

93. Improving the Response Rate in a mail survey Quality printing Covering letter Advance information Incentives Follow-up-contacts Larger sample size

94. Advantages of Questionnaire They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out the country, irrespective of distance. They can cover extensive geographical areas Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are difficult to reach in any other way. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewer’s bias, as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator. Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire.

95. Disadvantages of Questionnaire The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a representative one.

96. Distinction b/w Schedules & Questionnaires Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent whereas schedules are carried by the investigator himself. Questionnaires can be filled by the respondent only if he is able to understand the language in which it is written and he is supposed to be a literate. This problem can be overcome in case of schedule since the investigator himself carries the schedules and the respondent’s response is accordingly taken. A questionnaire is filled by the respondent himself whereas the schedule is filled by the investigator.

97. UNIT-10 INTERVIEWING An interview is a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. It is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide. It may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one is studies of persons. It is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated respondents.People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once report is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.

98. Interview A meeting of minimum two expert- candidate Arranged to examine the suitability of the candidate Tested for subject knowledge, skills and desired behavior in a very limited time

99. structured interview A structured interview (also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-administered survey) is a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interviewee is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. This ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made with confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods. Structured interviews are a means of collecting data for a statistical survey. In this case, the data is collected by an interviewer rather than through a self-administered questionnaire. Interviewers read the questions exactly as they appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of answers to the questions is often fixed (close-ended) in advance, though open-ended questions can also be included within a structured interview.

100. A structured interview also standardizes the order in which questions are asked of survey respondents, so the questions are always answered within the same context. This is important for minimizing the impact of context effects, where the answers given to a survey question can depend on the nature of preceding questions. Though context effects can never be avoided, it is often desirable to hold them constant across all respondents.

101. Unstructured Interviews Unstructured Interviews are a method of interviews where questions can be changed or adapted to meet the respondent's intelligence, understanding or belief. Unlike a structured interview they do not offer a limited, pre-set range of answers for a respondent to choose, but instead advocate listening to how each individual person responds to the question. The method to gather information using this technique is fairly limited, for example most surveys that are carried out via telephone or even in person tend to follow a structured method. Outside of sociology the use of such interviews is very limited.

102. Focused Interview This technique is used to collect qualitative data by setting up a situation (the interview) that allows a respondent the time and scope to talk about their opinions on a particular subject. The focus of the interview is decided by the researcher and there may be areas the researcher is interested in exploring. The objective is to understand the respondent's point of view rather than make generalizations about behavior. It uses open-ended questions, some suggested by the researcher (“Tell me about…”) and some arise naturally during the interview (“You said a moment ago…can you tell me more?”). The researcher tries to build a rapport with the respondent and the interview is like a conversation. Questions are asked when the interviewer feels it is appropriate to ask them. They may be prepared questions or questions that occur to the researcher during the interview. The wording of questions will not necessarily be the same for all respondents.

103. Clinical Interview This is similar to the focused interview but with a suitable difference. While the focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individual’s life experiences. The ‘personal history’ interview used in social case work, prison administration, psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the individual’s life history to be covered by the interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent is encouraged to talk freely about them.

104. Depth Interview This is an intensive & searching interview aiming at studying the respondent’s opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more training on inter-personal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions. This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectively charged information. If requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he should use encouraging expressions like “uh-huh” or “I see” to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewer has to face the problem of affections,i.e. the respondent may hide expressing affective feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.

105. Approaches to Interview The Participants The relationship between the participants is a transitory one Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally Interview is an inter-actionable process Interviewing is not a standardized process

106. Qualities of Interviews Data availability Role perception The interviewer should also know his role Respondent’s motivation

107. Merits of Interview Method Greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be secured. When used with well conceived schedules, an interview can obtain a great deal of information. It far exceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data that can be secured. The interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the quality of information received than other method. He can note the conditions of the interview situation, and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the respondent’s unwillingness, incorrect understand of question, suspicion etc.

108. The interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic level, living conditions etc. through observation of the respondent’s environment. The interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing. The accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by observation and probing. Interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more, control can be exercised over the interview situation.

109. Demerits of Interview Method Its greatest limitation is that it is costly and time consuming. The interview results are often adversely affected by interviewer’s mode of asking questions and interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondent’s faulty perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc. Certain types of personal and financial information may be refused in face-to-face interviews. Such information might be supplied more willingly on mail questionnaires, especially if they are to be unsigned. Interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondents. No full proof system is available. Note taking is invariably distracting to both the respondent and the interviewer and affects the thread of the conversation.

110. Interviewing techniques in Business Research Preparation Introduction Developing Rapport Carrying the interview forward Additional sittings Recording the interview Closing the interview Editing

111. Interview Problems Inadequate Response Interviewer’s Bias Non-Response Non-Availability Refusal Inaccessibility Methods and Aim of control of non-response

112. Telephone Interviewing It is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a major method or supplementary method.It will be useful in the following situations: When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in telephone directories,e.g. business houses, business executives, doctors, other professionals. When the study required responses to five or six simple questions e.g. radio or TV program survey. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided the units of study are listed in telephone directory.

113. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a survey relating to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a survey relating to a profession conducted by the concerned professional association. When the respondents are widely scattered.

114. Group Interviews It is a method of collecting primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the subject under study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members to interact with each other. The desired information may be obtained through self-administered questionnaire or interview, with the discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of concern. In particular, the interviewers look for evidence of common elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a single comment by a member can provide important insight.

115. Samples for group interview can be obtained through schools, clubs and other organized groups. The group interview technique can be employed by researchers in studying people’s reactions on public amenities, public health projects, welfare schemes etc. It is a popular method in marketing research to evaluate new product or service concepts, brand names, packages, promotional strategies and attitudes.When an organization needs a great variety of information in as much detail as possible at a relatively low cost and in a short period of time, the group interview technique is more useful. It can be used to generate primary data in the exploratory phase of a project.

116. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UNIT-12 RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

117. Report A report is a communication of information or advice from a person who has collected and studied the facts, to a person who has asked for the report because they need it for a specific purpose.

118. Reports are the most usual way of communicating the result of projects or investigations-for employers, governments, political organizations. They should be concise and have a specific structure. Courses require report writing to give you practice at producing information in a relevant way for employment.

119. RESEARCH REPORT A research report is: a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research project to others. The last stage of a marketing research process.; It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the research process. The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit.

120. Any research report contains: descriptions on methodology, results obtained, and recommendations made. The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience. Before writing the report the researcher must know his or her audience; he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition, background and interests of the target readers.

121. REPORT PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION PROCESS

122. Purpose of Report It is important to make sure your report fits the purpose and meets its aims. Your audience (who is your report for? What are the readers’ need and characteristics? Your aim (what end result do you want-to inform, persuade, recommend, will it lead to decision, or policies) Your topic and focus (what is the main subject area and which particular aspect/issue will you cover)

123. Types of Research Reports Technical Reports Popular Report Interim Report Summary Report Research Abstract Research Articles

124. CONTENTS OF RESEARCH REPORT I. Title pageII. Letter of transmittalIII. Table of contentsIV. List of tablesV. List of graphsVI. List of appendicesVII. List of exhibitsVIII. Executive summary a. Major findings b. Conclusions c. RecommendationsIX. Introduction a. Background to the problem b. Statement of the problemX. Approach to the problem XI. Research design a. Type of research designb. Information needsc. Data collection from secondary sourcesd. Data collection from primary sourcese. Scaling techniquesf. Questionnaire development and pretestingg. Sampling techniquesh. Field work XII. Data analysisa. Methodologyb. Plan of data analysis XIII. Results XIV. Limitations and caveats XV. Conclusions and recommendations XVI. Appendixa. Questionnaires and formsb. Statistical outputc. Lists

125. The first step in the process involves.. the interpretation of the results of data analysis in light of: the marketing research problem investigated, and the research design and methodology followed. The research report is a means of communication that can be understood, believed, trusted by everyone who are likely to be affected by the research, and acted upon by the decision maker.

126. Before writing the report… the researcher should discuss: the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations with the key decision makers. necessary to ensure that the report meets the client's needs and is ultimately accepted. The entire marketing research project: should be summarized in a single written report or in several reports addressed to different readers. should present the findings in such a way that they can be used directly as input into decision making.

127. Report Format No universally accepted standard format or style for research writing. Different researchers may prepare their reports differently. The personality, background, expertise, and responsibility of the researcher and those of the decision maker for whom the report is written interact to give each report a unique character. Report formats are likely to vary with the nature of the project itself. However, the research report closely resembles the steps of the marketing research process.

128. Report Writing Effective report writing is an art. Some basic points to note in writing a report. Readers: The report should take into account the level of readers' technical sophistication, their interest in the project, ability to understand as well as the circumstances under which they will read the report and how they will use it.. Adherence to study objectives: A research report must show that the research objectives have been accomplished.. Easy to follow: The most basic characteristic of a good report is that it is easy to follow. It should be well organized, logically structured, and clearly and lucidly written. Headings and sub-headings should be used for different topics and subtopics respectively..

129. Objective: Report writing should always be guided by objectivity. Should accurately present the methodology, results, and conclusions of the project, without slanting the findings to conform to the expectations of management. Selectivity: A researcher must use his or her discretion in deciding what should be included in the report. Concise: A report should be concise. Yet brevity should not be achieved at the expense of completeness. Presentation: The report should be professionally done with quality paper, good typing, and attractive binding.

130. Visual aids: Key information presented in the text of a research report should be reinforced with tables, graphs, pictures, maps, and other visual devices. Guidelines for Tables: Statistical tables are a vital part of the report and deserve special attention. Every table should have a number and brief but clear title. Basis or unit of measurement should be clearly stated to facilitate understanding. The arrangement of the data item should emphasize the most important aspect of the data being presented. If necessary, explanations, comments etc. should be provided as footnotes. If the table presents secondary data, the source(s) must be cited clearly. 

131. Styles of Reporting 1. Appropriate language Precise Concise Explain words/terms your reader may not understand Abbreviations should be written in full first with the abbreviation in brackets, after which the abbreviation can be used Short sentences

132. 2. Layout of a report presentation Overall image: word processing Headings: use headings Numbering: numbering your sections and makes things clearer

133. 3. Use of images/visuals To make something clearer rather than to pretty things up When something is difficult to describe in words or visual in nature To show how something works

134. 4. Editing Purpose Have your clarified your purpose? Have you identified your reader’s needs/characteristics?

135. 5. Information Have you included the main points? Are points supported by evidence? Is the information relevant to the purpose?

136. 6. Accuracy Are there any spelling mistakes Is the grammar/punctuation correct? Do figures add up? Are the reference correct, in the text and at the end? Are the reference of information listed in the reference sections? Are abbreviations consistent?

137. 7. Format Is there a balance between sections? Do the most important items take up the most space? Is the report easy to follow? Is it easy to find information in the report? Are headings and numbering clear? Are the arguments followed through? Is it logical/easy to follow?

138. 8.Language Is it clear? Direct, easy to read? Will the readers understand it? Will its tone help you achieve the purpose? Can unnecessary words/phrases be deleted? Is there any repetitions?

139. 9.Presentation Is the layout appealing? Does it highlight important points? Are images clear?

140. 10. evaluate and improve your report Look at any assessment criteria to see how far it meets them Look at your aim to see if you have met them Use feedback THANKS…………..