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Carbon and biological Macromolecules

Carbon and biological Macromolecules . Zakk Drumm Torpey White Ryan O’Kane. Carbon. Carbon forms bonds between other elements to make compounds essential for life The study of carbon compounds is known as organic chemistry. Carbon bonds.

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Carbon and biological Macromolecules

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  1. Carbon and biological Macromolecules ZakkDrumm Torpey White Ryan O’Kane

  2. Carbon • Carbon forms bonds between other elements to make compounds essential for life • The study of carbon compounds is known as organic chemistry

  3. Carbon bonds • Carbon has four valence electrons so it can accept four more electrons when bonding • Each carbon atom makes four bonds • Known as tetravalence • Tetrehedral bonds have an angle of 109.5 degrees

  4. Miller’s Experiment • Miller set up an experiment to mimic early earth

  5. Bonds cont. • Common carbon molecules • Carbon dioxide- CO2 • Urea- CO(NH2)2 • Glucose- C6H12O6

  6. Carbon Chains • Carbon chains form the backbone of living organisms • Carbon chains vary greatly in size and shape

  7. Hydrocarbons • Hydrocarbons are molecules that are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms. • Many organic molecules have long hydrocarbon chains, such as fats

  8. Isomers • Isomers are molecules with the same formula but different shapes • Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of molecules • Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but different spatial arrangements • Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.

  9. Properties of molecules • The properties of organic molecules not only depend on the Skelton, but also on functional groups

  10. Functional groups • Functional groups are components of molecules most commonly found in chemical reactions • The number and arrangement of each functional group gives each carbon chain unique properties.

  11. Functional groups cont.

  12. Functional groups • ATP is a phosphate group responsible for most of the energy used by cells • ATP consists of an adenosine molecule attached to three phosphate groups.

  13. Biological molecules • There are four classes of large biological molecules, Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. • Macromoleculesare large molecules composed of thousands of connected atoms. • The function of these molecules is directly related to their structure

  14. Polymers • Polymers are long chain like molecules made from smaller building blocks • Those building blocks are known as monomers • Three of the four classes of molecules are polymers • Carbohydrates • Proteins • Nucleic acids

  15. Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis • Hydrolysis is the degradation of proteins by adding HOH • Dehydration synthesis is the synthesis of molecules by removing HOH

  16. Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates include sugars and their monomers • Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars • Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides • And polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharides

  17. Monosaccharides • The formulas for monosaccharides are usually multiples of CH2O • Glucose is one of the most common, and has a formula of C6H12O6

  18. Monosaccharides Cont. • Monosaccharides serve as fuel for cells and are also used for building blocks of more complex sugars

  19. Disaccharides • Disaccharides are formed by brining two monosaccharides together using dehydration synthesis. • The bond between the sugars is known as a glycosidic linkage.

  20. Disaccharides cont.

  21. Polysaccharides • Polysaccharides are the polymers of sugars • Their functions are determined by the sugars that construct them

  22. Storage polysacchardies • Storage polysaccharides are used for storing energy in organisms • Starch is the plant storage polysaccharide • Glycogen is the animal storage polysaccharide

  23. Starch • Starch is made up of glucasemonosaccharides that have been linked together. • There are two forms, amylose and amylopectin, amylose is not branchd and amylopectin is branched.

  24. Glycogen • Glycogen is also composed entirely of glucose • Glycogen differs from starch in the fact that it is more branched • It is stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals

  25. Cellulose • Cellulose is another polysaccharide found in plants. • It is also constructed from glucose but uses the beta form and not the alpha form • This makes it indigestible by the human system

  26. Cellulose V. Starch

  27. Lipids • Lipids are the only class of molecule that does not form a polymer • Lipids are hydrophobic molecules because they consist mainly of carbohydrates that form covalent non-polar bonds. • Three main types, fats, phospholipids, and steroids

  28. Fats • Fats consist of glycerol and fatty acids • Glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons • Fatty acids are long carbohydrate chains.

  29. Fats cont. • Saturated fats have no double bonds and are filled with a many hydrogens as possible. • Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds and do not have all the hydrogens they can bond to

  30. Phospholipids • Phospholipids are lipids that have hydro phobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic head. • They match up tail to tail to form a phospholipidbilayer • This bilayer makes up the cell membrane of most cells.

  31. Steroids • Steroidsare lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. • Cholesterol, a common steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes.

  32. Proteins • Proteinfunctionsinclude structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, defense against foreign substances, and organic catalysts (enzymes). • Proteins are polymers called polypeptides. • Polypeptides are constructed using amino acids

  33. Enzymes • Enzymes are large proteins that act as catalysts to speed up the rate of chemical reactions in cells • Enzymes are specific with molecules in the chemical reaction • Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly

  34. Polypeptides • Polypeptidesare polymers built from a set of 20 amino acids • The sequenceofamino acids determines a protein’s structure • A protein’s structure determines its function

  35. Amino acids • Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups attached to a central carbon • Amino acids differ in their properties due to variable side chains, called R groups • There are 20 different amino acids because there are 20 different side chains

  36. Amino acids cont Amino group Carboxyl group

  37. Amino acids cont.

  38. Bonding of Amino acids • Amino acids are linked by covalent bonds called peptide bonds • A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids • Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids that determines function • They are bonded through dehydration synthesis

  39. Protein structure • There are four levels of protein structure, amino acid sequence, folds and helixes, secondary structure folding, bonding of tertiary structures. • Primary structures of proteins are the sequences of amino acids in the chain • Primary structure determines secondary structure

  40. Protein Structure Cont. • Secondary structure is on of two things, beta pleated sheets and alpha helixes • These are determined by amino acids in the sequence • These are folded to form the tertiary structure • The tertiary structures are bonded to other tertiary structures to form quaternary structures

  41. Structure Cont.

  42. Sickle cell • A slight change in a proteins DNA can change its primary • This can affect a protein’s structure and ability to function. • Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin

  43. Environmental factors in structure • physical and chemical conditions can affect protein structure • Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel and loose its native shape • This shape change is called denaturation • A denatured protein is biologically inactive

  44. Determining structure • Scientists use X-ray crystallography to determine a protein’s structure • Another method is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which does not require protein crystallization • Bioinformatics uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequences

  45. Nucleic acids • Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides • Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides • Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group • The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside

  46. Nucleotide Monomers • There are two groups of nitrogenous bases: • Pyrimidines: C T (U) (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a single six-membered ring • Purines: A G (adenine and guanine) have a 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring • In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose • In RNA, the sugar is ribose. • Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group. Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar

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