Motivation: Analyzing and Influencing Factors in Management

1. m a n a g e m e n t 2eH i t t / B l a c k / P o r t e r Chapter 10: Motivation

2. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: • Analyze the motivational forces present in a specific situation • Identify the sources of an individual’s motivation • Differentiate between content and process theories of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful in analyzing a given motivational situation

3. Learning Objectives • Explain how job enrichment can influence an employee's motivation • Compare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement and describe their relative advantages and disadvantages for use by managers • Describe how values and attitudes toward work can influence motivation

4. What Is Motivation? Motivation: • Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior • Can come from: • Internal “push” forces or • External “pull” forces

5. Sources of Motivation Needs • For security • For self-esteem • For achievement • For power Attitudes • About self • About job • About supervisor • About organization Goals • Task completion • Performance level • Career advancement EXTERNAL (PULL FORCES) INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES) Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL (examples) Characteristics of THE JOB (examples) Characteristics of THE WORK SITUATION (examples) Feedback • For security • For self-esteem Work load Tasks • Variety • Scope Discretion • How job is performed Immediate social environment • Supervisor(s) • Workgroup members • Subordinates Organizational actions • Rewards and compensation • Availability of training • Pressure for high levels of output Adapted from Exhibit 10.1

6. Motivation Theories Content Theories Process Theories Focus Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy. Features in the work environment that satisfy a worker’s needs. How different variables can combine to influence the amount of effort put forth by employees. Theories Maslow’s Need Hierarchy McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Social Cognitive Theory Goal-Setting Theory Adapted from Exhibit 10.2

7. Content Theories of Motivation Content Theories Focus Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy. Features in the work environment that satisfy a worker’s needs. Theories Maslow’s Need Hierarchy McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Theories Focusing on INTERNAL Factors Theory Focusing on EXTERNAL Factors

8. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory • Humans have five needs arranged in hierarchy of strength and influence Individuals: • Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs first • Move to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied

9. Alderfer’s ERG Theory • ERG = existence, relatedness, growth • Different levels of needs can be active at the same time • People can move back to a lower level need even after a high level need has been met

10. Highest-order needs Self-actualization Growth Esteem Relatedness Belongingness Safety Most essential (prepotent) needs Existence Physiological Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories Adapted from Exhibit 10.3

11. Acquired Needs Theory • Individuals have three “learned” needs: Power, affiliation, achievement • People with need for achievement: • Work on tasks of moderate difficulty • Take moderate risks • Take personal responsibility for one’s own actions • Receive specific and concrete feedback on one’s own performance

12. Two-Factor Theory Motivators: Factors directly related to doing a job Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions surrounding the job Supervision Recognition Job Growth Achievement Compensation Benefits Nature of the work Responsibility Relations with co-workers Working conditions Adapted from Exhibit 10.4

13. Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels Motivators Intrinsic factors related to the doing of the job itself Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Hygiene-Factors Extrinsic factors related to conditions surrounding the job Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Adapted from Exhibit 10.5

14. Job Characteristics Model • Core Job • Characteristics • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Feedback • Autonomy • Critical Psychological States • Experienced • meaningfulness • of the work • Experienced • responsibility for • outcomes of the work • Knowledge of the actual • results of the work • activities • Outcomes • High: • Internal work • motivation • “Growth” • satisfaction • Work effectiveness • General job • satisfaction Adapted from Exhibit 10.6

15. Core Job Characteristics Skill Variety Core Job Characteristics Definition Example The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person. The aerospace engineer must be able to create blueprints, calculate tolerances, provide leadership to the work group, and give presentations to upper management. Task Identity The degree to which a job requires completion of a “whole” and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a viable outcome. The event manager handles all the plans for the annual executive retreat, attends the retreat, and receives information on its success from the participants. The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large. The finance manager devises a new benefits plan to improve health coverage for all employees. Task Significance Adapted from Exhibit 10.7

16. Core Job Characteristics (cont.) Autonomy Core Job Characteristics Definition Example The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. R&D scientists are linked via the company intranet, allowing them to post their ideas, ask questions, and propose solutions at any hour of the day, whether at the office, at home, or on the road. Feedback from the Job The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. The lathe operator knows he is cutting his pieces correctly, as very few are rejected by the workers in the next production area. Adapted from Exhibit 10.7

17. Process Theories of Motivation Process Theories Focus How different variables can combine to influence the amount of effort put forth by employees. Theories Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Social Cognitive Theory Goal-Setting Theory

18. Equity Theory Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others • Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.) • Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.) • Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people

19. Equity Theory Adapted from Exhibit 10.8

20. Expectancy Theory • Focuses on thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternatives • Three variables affect motivation: • Effort-to-performance (E  P): probability that certain effort leads to certain performance • Performance-to-outcome (P  O): probability that certain performance leads to certain outcome • Valence (V): anticipated value that a person attaches to the outcome Effort = (E  P) x (P  O) x V

21. Effort Performance Outcome (V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor) Components of Expectancy Theory E  P (I believe high effort will lead to good performance) P  O (I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor) E = effort P = performance O = outcome V = valence Adapted from Exhibit 10.9

22. Expectancy Theory To influence employee motivation, managers should: • Identify rewards that are valued • Strengthen beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewards • Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where they should direct their efforts • Make sure that the desired rewards under your control are given directly following particular levels of performance • Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards

23. Social Cognitive Theory Self-efficacy: • A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation • High self-efficacy beliefs are associated with better work-related performance

24. Enactive Mastery Vicarious Learning Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Verbal Persuasion Physiological or Psychological Arousal Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Adapted from Exhibit 10.10

25. Goal-Setting Theory • Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions • Two basic premises: • More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals • Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals

26. Reinforcements and Consequences

27. Reinforcements and Consequences • Desirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future • Rewards given should be: • Equitable • Efficient • Available • Not exclusive • Visible • Reversible Example: • Salesperson performs well gets an extra bonus for the year

28. Reinforcements and Consequences • Removal of undesirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future • Can backfire if used incorrectly Example: • Salesperson who performs well is removed from territory that has difficult customers

29. Reinforcements and Consequences • Unwanted consequences following undesirable behavior to decrease the likelihood that it will be repeated • Punishments are discouraged in most organizations today, as they may be inappropriate or too negative Example: • Salesperson who performs poorly is fired or demoted

30. Reinforcements and Consequences • The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future Example: • Salesperson tells a tasteless joke and is ignored in the hopes of discouraging such joking

31. Reinforcement Approaches Adapted from Exhibit 10.11

32. Planned Programs of Positive Reinforcement • Specify desired performance precisely • Measure desired behaviors • Provide frequent positive consequences for specified behaviors • Evaluate the effectiveness of the program

33. Social Influences on Motivation

34. Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work • Values • Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying • Attitudes toward work • Work centrality • Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual • Differs between cultures

35. Differences in Core Values Adapted from Exhibit 10.12

36. Work Centrality: Country Differences Adapted from Exhibit 10.13