Personality

1. Personality �She felt that those who prepared for all the emergencies of life beforehand may equip themselves at the expense of joy.� E.M. Forster �Howards End�

2. Pop psychologists have littered the self-help aisle with books designed to tell you about yourself based on your food choices (you are what you eat), color preferences (if you like red, you�re said to be emotional), handwriting (short, clipped strokes mean that you�re stingy) and body shape (�round� people are outgoing party animals). They are not alone�there is a booming business for astrological predictions � both horoscopes and palm readers and crystal ball gazers� Within the psychological domain, we�ll discuss four approaches to personality: psychoanalysis, the cognitive-social approach, the humanistic approach, and the trait approach. Each perspective contains a set of theories that share certain assumptions about human nature � how personality forms and then develops; whether people are inherently good or bad, the relative importance of biological and environmental factors; and the question of stability and change.Pop psychologists have littered the self-help aisle with books designed to tell you about yourself based on your food choices (you are what you eat), color preferences (if you like red, you�re said to be emotional), handwriting (short, clipped strokes mean that you�re stingy) and body shape (�round� people are outgoing party animals). They are not alone�there is a booming business for astrological predictions � both horoscopes and palm readers and crystal ball gazers� Within the psychological domain, we�ll discuss four approaches to personality: psychoanalysis, the cognitive-social approach, the humanistic approach, and the trait approach. Each perspective contains a set of theories that share certain assumptions about human nature � how personality forms and then develops; whether people are inherently good or bad, the relative importance of biological and environmental factors; and the question of stability and change.

3. Psychoanalytic Approach Sigmund Freud (1856 � 1939) Josef Breuer�s �talking cure� Catharsis Product of the Victorian era Repressed sexuality Rationality & self-control distinguish us from the animals Eros and Thanatos Inhibited sexuality & inhibited aggression The Iceberg Metaphor In 1885, Freud moved to Paris to study with Jean Charcot, an eminent French neurologist. Charcot was studying hysteria, a conversion disorder in which the patient experiences symptoms such as paralysis of the limbs, blindness, deafness, convulsions and the like � without an organic basis. What�s fascinating about hysteria is that the patient is not faking, yet there�s nothing physically wrong. Charcot found that hysterical disorders often started with a traumatic even in the patient�s childhood and that he could make the symptoms vanish by putting the patient under hypnosis. You can imagine how dazzled Freud was by the sight of previously paralyzed patients suddenly able to walk and of those who were blind now being able to see. Demonstrations like these filled Freud with profound regard for the power of unconscious forces. Back in Vienna, Freud became intrigued by the case of Anna O., a patient who suffered from hysterical paralysis of three limbs, impaired vision and speech, and a nervous cough. With the help of her physician, Josef Breuer, Anna was able to recall the events that precipitated her symptoms. As if a large block had been removed from her mind, Anna�s symptoms slowly disappeared. Breuer had invented what he called the talking cure. Freud was convinced that the traumas and conflicts of early childhood can have lasting effects, that we are ruled by unconscious forces, that we resist painful insights, and that we transfer our feelings for one object to another. These are ideas that we�ll see appearing time and again with Freud and are what really shaped his theory of psychoanalysis as a therapeutic tool.In 1885, Freud moved to Paris to study with Jean Charcot, an eminent French neurologist. Charcot was studying hysteria, a conversion disorder in which the patient experiences symptoms such as paralysis of the limbs, blindness, deafness, convulsions and the like � without an organic basis. What�s fascinating about hysteria is that the patient is not faking, yet there�s nothing physically wrong. Charcot found that hysterical disorders often started with a traumatic even in the patient�s childhood and that he could make the symptoms vanish by putting the patient under hypnosis. You can imagine how dazzled Freud was by the sight of previously paralyzed patients suddenly able to walk and of those who were blind now being able to see. Demonstrations like these filled Freud with profound regard for the power of unconscious forces. Back in Vienna, Freud became intrigued by the case of Anna O., a patient who suffered from hysterical paralysis of three limbs, impaired vision and speech, and a nervous cough. With the help of her physician, Josef Breuer, Anna was able to recall the events that precipitated her symptoms. As if a large block had been removed from her mind, Anna�s symptoms slowly disappeared. Breuer had invented what he called the talking cure. Freud was convinced that the traumas and conflicts of early childhood can have lasting effects, that we are ruled by unconscious forces, that we resist painful insights, and that we transfer our feelings for one object to another. These are ideas that we�ll see appearing time and again with Freud and are what really shaped his theory of psychoanalysis as a therapeutic tool.

4. Freud�s Structure of Personality Underlying psychoanalysis is the assumption that personality is shaped largely by forces that act within a person�s unconscious. To illustrate, Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg. Like the small tip of the iceberg that can be seen above the water, the conscious part of the mind consists of all that a person is aware of at a given moment. Below the surface is the vast region of the unconscious, which contains thoughts, feelings, and memories that are hidden from view. Part of this region lies just beneath the surface, in an area Freud called the preconscious. Preconscious material is not threatening, just temporarily out of awareness and easy to bring to mind. The rest of the unconscious, however, is a deep, dark sea of secret urges, wishes, and drives. According to Freud, the mind keeps these unacceptable impulses out of awareness. Still they rumble, make waves, and surface for air � in our dreams, our slips of the tongue, the jokes we tell, the people we�re attracted to, and the anxieties we feel.Underlying psychoanalysis is the assumption that personality is shaped largely by forces that act within a person�s unconscious. To illustrate, Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg. Like the small tip of the iceberg that can be seen above the water, the conscious part of the mind consists of all that a person is aware of at a given moment. Below the surface is the vast region of the unconscious, which contains thoughts, feelings, and memories that are hidden from view. Part of this region lies just beneath the surface, in an area Freud called the preconscious. Preconscious material is not threatening, just temporarily out of awareness and easy to bring to mind. The rest of the unconscious, however, is a deep, dark sea of secret urges, wishes, and drives. According to Freud, the mind keeps these unacceptable impulses out of awareness. Still they rumble, make waves, and surface for air � in our dreams, our slips of the tongue, the jokes we tell, the people we�re attracted to, and the anxieties we feel.

5. How the iceberg works Id Functions on �pleasure principle� Immediate gratification of needs to reduce tension & discomfort regardless of consequences Superego Functions on �idealistic principle� Our moral guide/conscience Influenced by internalizing our parents� values & the voice of society Works against the Id by inflicting guilt ID: I WANT IT AND I WANT IT NOW!!!! SUPEREGO: The restraint. Two components � both our conscience as well as our ideal of who we ideally want to be.ID: I WANT IT AND I WANT IT NOW!!!! SUPEREGO: The restraint. Two components � both our conscience as well as our ideal of who we ideally want to be.

6. How the iceberg works (cont.) Ego Functions on �reality principle� Serves to balance the demands the Id and the Superego Assesses what is realistically possible in satisfying the Id and/or Superego (i.e., what society will deem acceptable) Ego uses defense mechanisms to protect itself Personality is result of the battle for control between id, ego & superego Ego: A master of compromise, a part of us that tries to satisfy our needs without offending our morals.Ego: A master of compromise, a part of us that tries to satisfy our needs without offending our morals.

7. Defense Mechanisms Denial Denying the anxiety outright Repression Blocking out/prevention of anxiety � forcing anxiety back into unconscious Rationalization Creating false reasons or explanations for anxiety in the form of a shortcoming Denial: Anxiety-filled external events not only are forgotten but also are barred from awareness in the first place. See no evil, hear no evil!! Denial is common among terminally ill patients and in families that sometimes refuse to admit that a loved one is dying. It is also characteristic of smokers who refuse to recognize the health risks of their habit, husbands and wives who ignore signs of marital conflict, and politicians who manage to over look corruption that takes place right under their noses. Repression occurs when anxiety-provoking thoughts and memories are �forgotten� and pushed out of awareness. Freud believed that people repress unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, traumas, and guilt feelings. Rationlization involves making excuses for one�s failures and shortcomings. The fox in Aesop�s fable who refused the grapes he could not reach because �the were sour� used rationalization. So do failing students who say they don�t really care about their grades, gamblers who justify their massive losses as entertainment costs, and scorned lovers who find fault with those who reject them.Denial: Anxiety-filled external events not only are forgotten but also are barred from awareness in the first place. See no evil, hear no evil!! Denial is common among terminally ill patients and in families that sometimes refuse to admit that a loved one is dying. It is also characteristic of smokers who refuse to recognize the health risks of their habit, husbands and wives who ignore signs of marital conflict, and politicians who manage to over look corruption that takes place right under their noses. Repression occurs when anxiety-provoking thoughts and memories are �forgotten� and pushed out of awareness. Freud believed that people repress unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, traumas, and guilt feelings. Rationlization involves making excuses for one�s failures and shortcomings. The fox in Aesop�s fable who refused the grapes he could not reach because �the were sour� used rationalization. So do failing students who say they don�t really care about their grades, gamblers who justify their massive losses as entertainment costs, and scorned lovers who find fault with those who reject them.

8. Defense Mechanisms (cont.) Projection Seeing in others unacceptable feelings that reside in one�s own unconscious Displacement Acting out your anxiety on an innocent party Scapegoating

9. Defense Mechanisms (cont.) Reaction formation Reversing the nature of the anxiety so that it feels like its opposite nature Exaggerated love for someone you unconsciously hate Sublimation Channeling anxiety into socially-acceptable activities Focusing sexual energy into art, music, etc.

10. Freud�s Psychosexual Stages Periods of development Sexual focus Implications for adult personality Fixation Oral (Birth to 1� yrs) Gratification is centered around the mouth (e.g., breast-feeding, sucking, biting) Anal (1� to 3 yrs) Gratification is centered around the pleasure of defecation; toilet-training is issue for resolution and development According to Freud, his clinical work led him to draw two conclusions about human development: that personality is shaped in the first few years of life, and that the resolution of �psychosexual� conflicts is the key contributor. He went on to propose that all children pass through an odyssey of psychosexual stages of development, with each stage defined by a different �erogenous zone� a part of the body that�s most sensitive to erotic stimulation. First is the oral stage, a time when the baby�s mouth is the pleasure-seeking center of attention. Oral activity begins with the sucking of nipples, thumbs, and pacifiers, then moves on to biting, chewing, cooing, and other oral activities. In this stage, the infant is totally dependent on caretakers, feeding is a key activity, and weaning is the major source of conflict. Next comes the anal stage. Here the baby derives pleasure in the sensation of holding in and letting go of bodily feces. There is a regular and enjoyable cycle of tension buildup and release. In this stage, however, toilet training brings the parent (saying WAIT) and the child (I don�t want to) into sharp conflict.According to Freud, his clinical work led him to draw two conclusions about human development: that personality is shaped in the first few years of life, and that the resolution of �psychosexual� conflicts is the key contributor. He went on to propose that all children pass through an odyssey of psychosexual stages of development, with each stage defined by a different �erogenous zone� a part of the body that�s most sensitive to erotic stimulation. First is the oral stage, a time when the baby�s mouth is the pleasure-seeking center of attention. Oral activity begins with the sucking of nipples, thumbs, and pacifiers, then moves on to biting, chewing, cooing, and other oral activities. In this stage, the infant is totally dependent on caretakers, feeding is a key activity, and weaning is the major source of conflict. Next comes the anal stage. Here the baby derives pleasure in the sensation of holding in and letting go of bodily feces. There is a regular and enjoyable cycle of tension buildup and release. In this stage, however, toilet training brings the parent (saying WAIT) and the child (I don�t want to) into sharp conflict.

11. Freud�s Psychoanalytic Stages Phallic (3 to 6) Gratification manifests itself through masturbation; resolution for development lies in identification w/ same-sex parent Oedipus Complex Boys have unconscious jealous love for mother and desire to kill the father; fear of castration by father leads to resolution with acceptance of/identification with father and internalization of father�s values Strong superego results in this resolution Electra Complex Girls discover that they do not have a penis and desire one (�penis envy�); they direct their anger toward the mother for not providing a penis; jealous of mother forefather Gradual realization that these desires are self-defeating; identification with mother results Between ages three and six, the child enters the phallic stage, a time when pleasure is felt in the genital area. In this stage, children become fascinated with the body and can often be seen playing with their own sex organs in public, a habit that once again brings them into conflict with their parents. To Freud, the single most dramatic conflict in psychosexual development takes place at this point! There�s a famous Greek tragedy in which the hero, an abandoned infant who goes on to become King Oedipus, returns as a young man to kill his father and marry his mother, both without realizing who they are. According to Freud, this legend exposes an unconscious human wish he called the oedipal complex � a tendency for children to become sexually attracted to the parent of the opposite sex and to develop feelings of jealousy and rage toward the rival parent of the same sex. Freud�s theory of male development is clear: The young boy wants his mother and hates his father for standing in the way. Because the father is bigger and more powerful, however, the boy develops castration anxiety, a fear that the father will retaliate by cutting off his son�s prized genitals. For defensive reasons, the boy represses his sexual urge for his mother and tries to emulate the father. As a result, the boy becomes less anxious, derives partial satisfaction of his repressed wish for his mother, and adopts his father�s moral values. Even Freud admitted that his theory for girls was less clear. At some point, he says, the girl notices that her father has a penis but that she and her mother do not. Unconsciously, the girl blames and resents the mother for this deficiency, develops penis envy, and seeks to become daddy�s little girl. Eventually, she realizes the futility of these feelings, represses her envy, and identifies with her mother. For both boys and girls, then, the identification part of the process is important: It means that the superego springs full blown from the Oedipus complex.Between ages three and six, the child enters the phallic stage, a time when pleasure is felt in the genital area. In this stage, children become fascinated with the body and can often be seen playing with their own sex organs in public, a habit that once again brings them into conflict with their parents. To Freud, the single most dramatic conflict in psychosexual development takes place at this point! There�s a famous Greek tragedy in which the hero, an abandoned infant who goes on to become King Oedipus, returns as a young man to kill his father and marry his mother, both without realizing who they are. According to Freud, this legend exposes an unconscious human wish he called the oedipal complex � a tendency for children to become sexually attracted to the parent of the opposite sex and to develop feelings of jealousy and rage toward the rival parent of the same sex. Freud�s theory of male development is clear: The young boy wants his mother and hates his father for standing in the way. Because the father is bigger and more powerful, however, the boy develops castration anxiety, a fear that the father will retaliate by cutting off his son�s prized genitals. For defensive reasons, the boy represses his sexual urge for his mother and tries to emulate the father. As a result, the boy becomes less anxious, derives partial satisfaction of his repressed wish for his mother, and adopts his father�s moral values. Even Freud admitted that his theory for girls was less clear. At some point, he says, the girl notices that her father has a penis but that she and her mother do not. Unconsciously, the girl blames and resents the mother for this deficiency, develops penis envy, and seeks to become daddy�s little girl. Eventually, she realizes the futility of these feelings, represses her envy, and identifies with her mother. For both boys and girls, then, the identification part of the process is important: It means that the superego springs full blown from the Oedipus complex.

12. Freud�s Psychoanalytic Stages Latency (6 to puberty) Sexual urges are repressed and transformed into socially acceptable activities, such as schoolwork and peer activities Genital (puberty � adulthood) Successful resolution and development into a mature sexual relationship Once Oedipal complexes are resolved, the child enters a long latency period, which lasts roughly from 6 to 12. In these middle years of childhood, sexual impulses lie dormant, as boys and girls concentrate on friends of the same sex and schoolwork. As parents come to appreciate, this is a time of calm between storms. Indeed, it precedes the fourth and final stage � the genital stage. Starting at puberty, boys and girls emerge from their latency shells and feel the stirring of adult like sexual urges for the first time. Once again, the ego must cope with an undeclared state of war between biological drives and social prohibitions. According to Freud, one must pass successfully through all psychosexual stages in order to form a healthy personality and enjoy mature adult relationships. If children receive too much or too little gratification at an earlier stage, they become stuck or fixated at that stage. This fixation is then responsible for abnormalities in personality.Once Oedipal complexes are resolved, the child enters a long latency period, which lasts roughly from 6 to 12. In these middle years of childhood, sexual impulses lie dormant, as boys and girls concentrate on friends of the same sex and schoolwork. As parents come to appreciate, this is a time of calm between storms. Indeed, it precedes the fourth and final stage � the genital stage. Starting at puberty, boys and girls emerge from their latency shells and feel the stirring of adult like sexual urges for the first time. Once again, the ego must cope with an undeclared state of war between biological drives and social prohibitions. According to Freud, one must pass successfully through all psychosexual stages in order to form a healthy personality and enjoy mature adult relationships. If children receive too much or too little gratification at an earlier stage, they become stuck or fixated at that stage. This fixation is then responsible for abnormalities in personality.

13. Criticisms of Freud Sexist Freud�s theory was thought to be sexist against women (e.g., �penis envy�, underdeveloped superego) Description rather than prediction Subjective description, solely by Freud, and �after the fact� on a relatively small sample of patients, including himself! His patients were mostly females from upper classes Unverifiable concepts How the heck can you directly confirm, disconfirm, or even observe the Oedipus Complex?! Feels more mythical than scientific Too many hypotheses for reactions to anxiety A second criticism of psychoanalysis is that it does not meet acceptable standards of science. From the start, Freud based his whole theory on observations he made of his Vienna patients, hardly a representative group of human beings. He then proceeded to use the theory to explain family dynamics, mental illness, love and attraction, homosexuality, war, religion, and the course of human history. Of course, after-the-fact explanations are easy, very much like betting on a horse after the race has been run. But can Freud�s theory predict these kinds of events in advance? This leads us to the third criticism�A number of these concepts are almost impossible to test. When carefully controlled research is possible, it generally fails to support many of Freud�s propositions. One important example concerns the assumption that personality is completely formed inn the first few years of life. In light of recent research, we now know that although early childhood experiences are formative, and can have a lasting impact on us, development is a lifelong process. Freud�s theory that childhood conflicts cause people to become fixated at certain psychosexual stages has also not stood the test of time. Research has shown that although oral, anal, and phallic personality types can be identified, they don�t necessarily arise from difficulties experienced in weaning, toilet training, masturbation, or other psychosexual experiences. Freud also had so many hypotheses about both our possible reactions to anxiety and possible ways of having personality flaws that it seems amazing that any of us are able to function successfully.A second criticism of psychoanalysis is that it does not meet acceptable standards of science. From the start, Freud based his whole theory on observations he made of his Vienna patients, hardly a representative group of human beings. He then proceeded to use the theory to explain family dynamics, mental illness, love and attraction, homosexuality, war, religion, and the course of human history. Of course, after-the-fact explanations are easy, very much like betting on a horse after the race has been run. But can Freud�s theory predict these kinds of events in advance? This leads us to the third criticism�A number of these concepts are almost impossible to test. When carefully controlled research is possible, it generally fails to support many of Freud�s propositions. One important example concerns the assumption that personality is completely formed inn the first few years of life. In light of recent research, we now know that although early childhood experiences are formative, and can have a lasting impact on us, development is a lifelong process. Freud�s theory that childhood conflicts cause people to become fixated at certain psychosexual stages has also not stood the test of time. Research has shown that although oral, anal, and phallic personality types can be identified, they don�t necessarily arise from difficulties experienced in weaning, toilet training, masturbation, or other psychosexual experiences. Freud also had so many hypotheses about both our possible reactions to anxiety and possible ways of having personality flaws that it seems amazing that any of us are able to function successfully.

14. But� Freud�s theory�. Was rich and comprehensive in description 1st comprehensive theory of personality: every personality theory since can be seen as a reaction to Freud Sparked psychoanalysis Many still believe that psychoanalysis is the best treatment for mental illness Was controversial and stretched the boundaries for creativity Freud: �I am actually not a man of science, not an observer, not an experimenter, not a thinker. I am by temperament nothing but a conquistador�an adventurer�with all the curiosity, daring, and tenacity characteristic of a man of this sort.� Why do you think his theory is still popular today? What do you like about it and why?

15. Beyond Freud�Dispositional Approaches Principles of dispositional approaches Personality is stable over time Personality is consistent across situations Consequences of these principles We must have enduring personal characteristics Traits Types In 1919, a 22 year old psychology student from Indiana handwrote a letter to Sigmund Freud to say he�d be traveling in Europe and would like to meet. Freud was the master, known worldwide, and the student, a fan, wanted to meet him. A time was arranged, so the student took a train to Vienna, arrived on schedule, and entered the master�s inner office. But Freud just sat there in silence, staring, waiting for his young, wide-eyed admirer to state his mission. Desperate to break the awkward stalemate, the student told about an incident he witnessed on the train that day involving a young boy who appeared to have a �dirt phobia�. The boy complained that the seats were soiled and pleaded with his mother to keep dirty passengers from sitting nearby. The mother, it turned out, was a dominant, �well-starched� woman. Isn�t that an interesting case, the student asks? Freud pauses, then leaned over and said in a soft voice, �And was that little boy you?� Freud�s young admirer was terribly embarrassed that Freud thought he was talking about himself. Wishing he could disappear, he nervously changed the subject, babbled a bit, then excused himself and left. How could Freud have been so wrong, he thought? Was Freud so accustomed to analyzing the hidden motives of his anxious patients that he couldn�t appreciate a man�s simple curiosity? It turns out that the student was Gordon Allport, who went on to become a very influential psychologist, with research in many domains, including personality. Allport later said that this experience convinced him that before personality theorists search for deep and analytical explanations, they should start by trying to describe and measure the basic units of personality. In other words, first things first. This rule now guides what is known as the trait approach. The trait approach states that we all have relatively stable personalities (across time) as well as fairly consistent personalities (across situations). It is based on the presumption that personality types are based on traits � again, relatively stable predispositions to behave in a certain way.In 1919, a 22 year old psychology student from Indiana handwrote a letter to Sigmund Freud to say he�d be traveling in Europe and would like to meet. Freud was the master, known worldwide, and the student, a fan, wanted to meet him. A time was arranged, so the student took a train to Vienna, arrived on schedule, and entered the master�s inner office. But Freud just sat there in silence, staring, waiting for his young, wide-eyed admirer to state his mission. Desperate to break the awkward stalemate, the student told about an incident he witnessed on the train that day involving a young boy who appeared to have a �dirt phobia�. The boy complained that the seats were soiled and pleaded with his mother to keep dirty passengers from sitting nearby. The mother, it turned out, was a dominant, �well-starched� woman. Isn�t that an interesting case, the student asks? Freud pauses, then leaned over and said in a soft voice, �And was that little boy you?� Freud�s young admirer was terribly embarrassed that Freud thought he was talking about himself. Wishing he could disappear, he nervously changed the subject, babbled a bit, then excused himself and left. How could Freud have been so wrong, he thought? Was Freud so accustomed to analyzing the hidden motives of his anxious patients that he couldn�t appreciate a man�s simple curiosity? It turns out that the student was Gordon Allport, who went on to become a very influential psychologist, with research in many domains, including personality. Allport later said that this experience convinced him that before personality theorists search for deep and analytical explanations, they should start by trying to describe and measure the basic units of personality. In other words, first things first. This rule now guides what is known as the trait approach. The trait approach states that we all have relatively stable personalities (across time) as well as fairly consistent personalities (across situations). It is based on the presumption that personality types are based on traits � again, relatively stable predispositions to behave in a certain way.

16. Allport�s Trait Theory Trait Relatively enduring, consistent personality characteristics - inferred from behavior 3 types of traits Cardinal traits Affect every area of the individual�s life Mother Theresa � altruistic Central traits Influence many aspects of our lives, but not quite as pervasive Someone you think of as �kind� or �funny� Secondary traits Affect narrower aspects of our lives Preference for cowboy hats or always wearing perfume In order to determine what traits are the language that we use to identify them, Allport and his poor, belabored graduate students pored over an unabridged dictionary until he came up with about 18,000 separate terms that could be used to describe personality. He pared the list down to a mere 4,500 descriptors after eliminating words with the same meaning, but he was obviously left with a problem crucial to all trait approaches: Which of those traits were the most basic? Allport answered this question by suggesting that there are three basic categories of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary. A cardinal trait is a single characteristic that directs most of a person�s activities. For example, a totally self-less woman may direct all her energy toward humanitarian activities; an intensely power-hungry person may be driven by an all-consuming need for control. Most people, however, do not develop a single, comprehensive cardinal trait. Instead, they possess a handful of central traits that make up the core of personality. Central traits, such as honesty and sociability, are the major characteristics of an individual; they usually number from five to ten in any one person. Finally, secondary traits are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or cardinal traits. For instance, a reluctance to eat meat and a love of modern art would be considered secondary traits.In order to determine what traits are the language that we use to identify them, Allport and his poor, belabored graduate students pored over an unabridged dictionary until he came up with about 18,000 separate terms that could be used to describe personality. He pared the list down to a mere 4,500 descriptors after eliminating words with the same meaning, but he was obviously left with a problem crucial to all trait approaches: Which of those traits were the most basic? Allport answered this question by suggesting that there are three basic categories of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary. A cardinal trait is a single characteristic that directs most of a person�s activities. For example, a totally self-less woman may direct all her energy toward humanitarian activities; an intensely power-hungry person may be driven by an all-consuming need for control. Most people, however, do not develop a single, comprehensive cardinal trait. Instead, they possess a handful of central traits that make up the core of personality. Central traits, such as honesty and sociability, are the major characteristics of an individual; they usually number from five to ten in any one person. Finally, secondary traits are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or cardinal traits. For instance, a reluctance to eat meat and a love of modern art would be considered secondary traits.

17. Type Theories 5-factor model of personality Where we fall on 5 different dimensions determines personality type Dimensions Openness to experience Curiosity, flexibility, imagination, artistic sensibility Conscientiousness Discipline, organization, dependable Extraversion Outgoing, upbeat, friendly, assertive, gregarious Agreeableness Sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, straightforward Neuroticsm Anxious, hostile, self-conscious Other researchers utilized the statistical technique of factor analysis, which we saw earlier in the Intelligence section, to further refine that list of 4500 traits that Allport developed. They found that five major factors often seemed to emerge from self-ratings, ratings of other people, and an assortment of personality questionnaires. This five-factor model of personality has emerged consistently in studies of children, college students, and older students; as well as across genders and cultures. Hence, these factors have been affectionately nicknamed the Big Five. Most researchers are now convinced that the best way to characterize individual differences in personality is to find where people stand on the following broad traits: Openness � a receptiveness to new experiences and ideas. Conscientiousness � a tendency to be reliable, disciplined, and ambitious. Extraversion � a desire for stimulation, activity, and social interaction. Agreeableness � a selfless concern for others. Neuroticism � a proneness to anxiety and negative affect.Other researchers utilized the statistical technique of factor analysis, which we saw earlier in the Intelligence section, to further refine that list of 4500 traits that Allport developed. They found that five major factors often seemed to emerge from self-ratings, ratings of other people, and an assortment of personality questionnaires. This five-factor model of personality has emerged consistently in studies of children, college students, and older students; as well as across genders and cultures. Hence, these factors have been affectionately nicknamed the Big Five. Most researchers are now convinced that the best way to characterize individual differences in personality is to find where people stand on the following broad traits: Openness � a receptiveness to new experiences and ideas. Conscientiousness � a tendency to be reliable, disciplined, and ambitious. Extraversion � a desire for stimulation, activity, and social interaction. Agreeableness � a selfless concern for others. Neuroticism � a proneness to anxiety and negative affect.

18. Behavioral Perspectives Bandura Self Efficacy Take his ideas of observational learning and add cognition Knowing we can actually perform behaviors successfully, in the way we wish to behave, leads to self-praise Mischel�s controversy Situational specificity Our behavior is mostly a function of a given situation, not of stable, internal traits Interactionism: both traits and situations interact to produce behavior, thoughts Bandura�s reciprocal determinism: behavior also influences traits and situations � all 3 factors influence each other In contrast to psychoanalysis and trait theories, other theorists have focused on the interaction of people and the environment in looking at personality. Bandura, you�ll remember him from his work with observational learning and the Bobo doll studies, expanded a concept of control in examining personality. Bandura believed that behavior is influenced not only by actual reinforcements but also by our perceptions of control. The more influence you think you have on a behavior, the more likely you are to engage in it, especially to the degree that it has positive outcomes. People also differ in the extent to which they think they can perform these reinforced behaviors in the first place. According to Bandura, these latter expectations are based on feelings of competence, or self-efficacy. Although some people are generally more confident than others, Bandura believed that self-efficacy is a state of mind that varies from one task and situation to another. In other words, you may have a high self-efficacy about meeting new people but not about writing a paper. Numerous studies of self-efficacy indicate that the more of it you have at a particular task, the more likely you are to take on an activity, try hard, persist in the face of failure, and eventually succeed. Now according to Walter Mischel, it is important to understand how individuals interact with their environment. Specifically with regards to how consistent a specific behavior is across situations. Mischel has shown that consistency (among the big five, for instance) across situations is fairly mild. Just because a person shows up on time for work does not necessarily mean that they will show up on time for a date. Mischel points out that how highly one scores on the Big Five inventories does not necessarily predict how they will act in a specific situation � even someone who scores highly on Neuroticism may, at times, be calm, secure, and confident. Mischel argues for a situational specific approach to personality. He states that our behavior is mostly a function of the situation, not of internal, consistent traits. He promotes an interactionist perspective: that both traits and situations interact to produce our behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Bandura then responded to this idea by adding another part � that our behavior also influences our traits and situations. The point is that environmental forces may help shape personalities, but we can also choose and alter the situations we encounter and we can interpret these situations in light of our own point of view. Bandura called this reciprocal determinism. Bandura sees human beings not as just reactive to outside forces, but also as generative, creative, proactive, and reflective agents of change. He is quoted as saying �The capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of one�s life is the essence of humanness.�In contrast to psychoanalysis and trait theories, other theorists have focused on the interaction of people and the environment in looking at personality. Bandura, you�ll remember him from his work with observational learning and the Bobo doll studies, expanded a concept of control in examining personality. Bandura believed that behavior is influenced not only by actual reinforcements but also by our perceptions of control. The more influence you think you have on a behavior, the more likely you are to engage in it, especially to the degree that it has positive outcomes. People also differ in the extent to which they think they can perform these reinforced behaviors in the first place. According to Bandura, these latter expectations are based on feelings of competence, or self-efficacy. Although some people are generally more confident than others, Bandura believed that self-efficacy is a state of mind that varies from one task and situation to another. In other words, you may have a high self-efficacy about meeting new people but not about writing a paper. Numerous studies of self-efficacy indicate that the more of it you have at a particular task, the more likely you are to take on an activity, try hard, persist in the face of failure, and eventually succeed. Now according to Walter Mischel, it is important to understand how individuals interact with their environment. Specifically with regards to how consistent a specific behavior is across situations. Mischel has shown that consistency (among the big five, for instance) across situations is fairly mild. Just because a person shows up on time for work does not necessarily mean that they will show up on time for a date. Mischel points out that how highly one scores on the Big Five inventories does not necessarily predict how they will act in a specific situation � even someone who scores highly on Neuroticism may, at times, be calm, secure, and confident. Mischel argues for a situational specific approach to personality. He states that our behavior is mostly a function of the situation, not of internal, consistent traits. He promotes an interactionist perspective: that both traits and situations interact to produce our behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Bandura then responded to this idea by adding another part � that our behavior also influences our traits and situations. The point is that environmental forces may help shape personalities, but we can also choose and alter the situations we encounter and we can interpret these situations in light of our own point of view. Bandura called this reciprocal determinism. Bandura sees human beings not as just reactive to outside forces, but also as generative, creative, proactive, and reflective agents of change. He is quoted as saying �The capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of one�s life is the essence of humanness.�

19. Humanistic Psychology Focuses on the positive aspects of being human (e.g., goodness, creativity, free will) Rejection of the scientific goal of predicting and controlling human behavior The major aim should be to discover things that expand and enrich human experience Should strive to seek info that will help solve human problems Description of what it means to be a human being in terms of meaningful experience, such as values, language, and emotions Faced with the choice between psychoanalysis and a more behavioral approach, many personality theorists in the 40s and 50s had the uneasy feeling that something was missing, something vital about human nature. What about the conscious mind, free will, subjective experiences, and the capacity for self-reflection? And isn�t there a brighter side to human nature? In short, where�s the person as we know it in personality? To fill this void, another �force� was born � the humanistic theory of personality.Faced with the choice between psychoanalysis and a more behavioral approach, many personality theorists in the 40s and 50s had the uneasy feeling that something was missing, something vital about human nature. What about the conscious mind, free will, subjective experiences, and the capacity for self-reflection? And isn�t there a brighter side to human nature? In short, where�s the person as we know it in personality? To fill this void, another �force� was born � the humanistic theory of personality.

20. Humanistic perspectives Rogers Person-centered therapy Congruence vs. incongruence Self � how positively do you view yourself? Experience � Do you have positive outcomes? To the degree that there is lots of overlap, then the person experiences congruence and has a positive self-concept. If there is not overlap, the person may experience a negative self-concept (which may demonstrate itself in low self-esteem) and experience motivation to increase the overlap.Self � how positively do you view yourself? Experience � Do you have positive outcomes? To the degree that there is lots of overlap, then the person experiences congruence and has a positive self-concept. If there is not overlap, the person may experience a negative self-concept (which may demonstrate itself in low self-esteem) and experience motivation to increase the overlap.

21. Evolutionary perspective Evolutionary perspective Disregards both conscious & unconscious determinants of personality Personality is a function of your unique combination of genes Good at: Explaining the Big Five Bad at: Explaining individual differences The Evolutionary perspective disregards both the conscious and unconscious determinants of personality. It focuses on the innate, inherited determinants of personality as well as determinism � the view that behavior is caused by factors outside one�s control. There is some evidence, again from twin studies, that some aspects of personality may be inherited: social potency (the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations) and traditionalism (the tendency to follow authority). Also, there is some evidence that the Big Five may be, at least partially, inherited. However, the evolutionary approach does not explain the large individual differences that are seen amongst the wide variety of personality traits.The Evolutionary perspective disregards both the conscious and unconscious determinants of personality. It focuses on the innate, inherited determinants of personality as well as determinism � the view that behavior is caused by factors outside one�s control. There is some evidence, again from twin studies, that some aspects of personality may be inherited: social potency (the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations) and traditionalism (the tendency to follow authority). Also, there is some evidence that the Big Five may be, at least partially, inherited. However, the evolutionary approach does not explain the large individual differences that are seen amongst the wide variety of personality traits.

22. Assessing Personality

23. Projective Tests Ask about meaningless, ambiguous stimuli Theory behind it that we will give an answer consistent with the inner workings of our minds Rorschach Inkblots Best used to measure how people process information Creativity, coping resources, emotional processing, relationships with others, thought disorders, psychoses The Rorschach is the most popular of the projective tests. It consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots, some in color and some in black and white. Subjects are asked what they see � but the examiner is also interested in how you approach the task: how long you take to make an interpretation, whether you are sensitive to form and color, and whether the images you report are common or uncommon.The Rorschach is the most popular of the projective tests. It consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots, some in color and some in black and white. Subjects are asked what they see � but the examiner is also interested in how you approach the task: how long you take to make an interpretation, whether you are sensitive to form and color, and whether the images you report are common or uncommon.

24. TAT-like Card Provide a story here: What is happening in this picture? What led up to it? What are the people here thinking and feeling? What will happen to these people here?

25. Thematic Apperception Test Black & white pictures of people in vague/ambiguous situations Asked to make up a dramatic story about the picture Best used to learn the motivation behind people�s behavior Believed that person will identify with one of the characters on each card In their stories, people are thought to express their own circumstances, needs, environmental demands, emotions, and perceptions of reality A second popular projective instrument is the thematic apperception test � or TAT. The theory behind is it is that personality is distinguished by the kinds of psychological needs that motivate people � such as the need for power, achievement, nurturance, and affiliation. Black and white pictures are presented and subjects are asked what the story is � what�s going on. There are 31 pictures � 10 are gender specific and 21 are gender-neutral. The TAT is based on the assumption that people identify with the heroes and project their own needs into their responses. If someone tells one story after another about the loss of a loved one, resistance to authority, the struggle to achieve success, or fear of rejection, chances are that the particular theme is an important one for the person.A second popular projective instrument is the thematic apperception test � or TAT. The theory behind is it is that personality is distinguished by the kinds of psychological needs that motivate people � such as the need for power, achievement, nurturance, and affiliation. Black and white pictures are presented and subjects are asked what the story is � what�s going on. There are 31 pictures � 10 are gender specific and 21 are gender-neutral. The TAT is based on the assumption that people identify with the heroes and project their own needs into their responses. If someone tells one story after another about the loss of a loved one, resistance to authority, the struggle to achieve success, or fear of rejection, chances are that the particular theme is an important one for the person.