Motivation

1. Motivation

2. Definitions of Motivation “Motive – a desire to fulfill a need.” (Cox, 1998) “The internal mechanisms which arouse and direct behaviour! (Sage, 1974) “The direction and intensity of ones effort” (Sage, 1974)

3. Intrinsic Motivation “Those who are intrinsically motivated engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction they experience while learning, exploring or trying to understand something new” (Weinberg & Gould, 2003)

4. “Those who are intrinsically motivated engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction they experience while learning, exploring or trying to understand something new” (Weinberg & Gould, 2003)

5. Extrinsic Motivation “Those who are extrinsically motivated engage in the activity because of the valued outcome rather than the interest in the activity solely for itself” (Weinberg & Gould, 2003)

6. “Those who are extrinsically motivated engage in the activity because of the valued outcome rather than the interest in the activity solely for itself” (Weinberg & Gould, 2003)

7. Consider each of the following statements made by athletes as to why they are motivated and decide whether it is an intrinsic or extrinsic factor • I want to win medals • I want to earn an England cap • I want to reach my full potential • I want to make money • I want to play in a good team • I want to play in front of large crowds • I want to give the public enjoyment • I want to feel good about my performance • I want to be recognised by the public for my ability

8. Type A Type B Intrinsic Extrinsic Personality ------------Motivation

9. Achievement Motivation • Can be seen as our level of competitiveness or desire for success Achievement Motivation = Need to achieve (nACH) – Need to avoid Failure (naF) • If our nACH outweighs our naF then we are said to be high in achievement motivation • A sportsperson with a high need to achieve will choose competitive situations and ooponents close to their skill level who will challenge them

10. Weiners Attribution Theory • The reasons we give for an outcome are called attributions • We make attributions about our own performances as well as those of other people. It is important for us to make attributions because: • They affect our motivation levels • We need to understand the outcome so we can learn from our experience • They will affect our future expectations of success and failure

11. Attributions can fall into 4 categories • Ability or skill – a performers capability in perfroming skills • Effort – the amount of physical or mental effort put into a task • Task difficulty – the problems posed by the task, e.g. strength of the opposition or difficulty of a move. • Luck – factors attributed to chancec, such as the effect of the weather, the referee or the run of the ball

12. Personality

13. Definitions of Personality “those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals.” (R. Gross) “personality is the underlying relatively stable psychological structures and p[rocesses that organise human experience and shape a persons actions and reactions to the environment” (Lazarus & Mowat)

14. Trait Approach • The ‘trait’ approach dominated early study of personality. • Traits can be seen as being relatively stable and enduring characteristics that could be used to predict an individuals behaviour in a variety of situations

15. Eysenck’s Type Theory • Eysenck regarded personality as largely resulting from the inherited (innate) tendencies • Eysenck identified two major personality trends (or dimensions) which can be viewed as a continuum

16. Extroversion Introversion Stable Neurotic

17. Neurotic Extroversion Introversion Stable

18. Interactionist Approach to Personality • This theory suggests that if we wish to understand or predict a performer’s behaviour we need to consider in depth both the individual person and the specific situation • This is expressed easily as B=f(P.E)

19. B = Behaviour • F = function • P = Personality Traits • E = Environment

20. Personality Types • There are 2 personality dispositions • Type A • Type B

21. Type A • These people tend to • Have a very strong competitive drive/need to succeed • Exhibit high levels of agitation/alertness and a tendency to be easily aroused • Generally to work at a fast pace, are hasty or have a strong sense of urgency • Find it hard to delegate, are intolerant or easily become hostile/angry • Need to be in control of the situation • Experience high levels of stress

22. Type B • These people tend to • Be more relaxed • Delegate easily • Be less competitive • Be less concerned to get everything done immediately • Be tolerant, methodical and calm dealing with problems • Experience low levels of stress

23. Both types are seen as being equally productive • The tendency towards anger/hostility is thought to increase the likelihood of stress related diseases • Fitness and exercise programmes have been shown to have a positive effect on the reduction of Type A behaviour

24. Attitudes • According to some psychologists, attitudes are a major foundation of social psychology • Attitudes are often linked to the concept of motivation • A performer who is highly motivated usually has a strong desire to achieve and thus a positive attitude

25. One of the most popular definitions of attitudes is by Triandis (1971) “ideas charged with emotion (positive or negative) which pre-disposes a class of actions to a particular social situation”

26. Attitudes & Behaviour • As attitudes are one of the key determinants of our behaviour thyey can heavily influence the way in which we behave towards different types of ‘attitude objects’ • People • Objects • Events • Ideas

27. In order to provide us with a better understanding of attitudes Secord & Backman (1964) proposed a structural approach to analysing the components of attitude • Cognitive component – what a person believes about the attitude object. E.g. I believe that jogging is good for me and keeps me fit • Affective component – what a person feels about the attitude object. This is usually linked to some form of evaluation related to a performers values and past experience. E.g. keeping fit and healthy helps me lead a healthy lifestyle • Behavioural component – reflects how a person actually responds or intends to act towards the attitude object as a result of 1 and 2. e.g. I go jogging regularly four times per week and encourage others to go jogging. I watch athletics on TV and purchase fitness and health magazines to supplement my knowledge

28. Aggression • In modern sport certain types of behaviour are acceptable and other types of behaviour are not! • Some forms of aggression are acceptable (eg. Fight for the ball, that was an aggressive serve) and others are not (rugby player stamping on another player) • What is the difference between a ‘firm challenge’ in football and an ‘aggressive challenge’?

29. “aggression is any form of behaviour toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” R.A. Baron, 1977

30. In relation to sport this definition stresses the idea that aggression is behaviour which is intentional and deliberate and involves injury to another person. • From this it can be inferred that aggression • Is a first act of hostility or injury • Involves physical or verbal action/behaviour (thinking is not aggressive unless it leads to action) • Involves implied intention (?) • Is ultimately damaging, physically or mentally

31. Anger is not seen as aggression but a state of emotional and physiological arousal • Aggression is usually seen as the destructive behavioural expression of anger • In order to clarify what is acceptable and what is not there has been a distinction between two types of aggression Hostile Aggression – aimed at solely hurting someone, the primary reinforcement is seeing pain or injury inflicted on another person. Also known as reactive aggression instrumental aggression – is a means to an end. Aggression to achieve a non-aggressive goal. The primary reinforcement being a tangible reward (e.g. praise, money, victory)

32. Assertive behaviour Assertion Aggression Grey area

33. Assertive behaviour is seen as acceptable but forceful behaviour is not • Assertive behaviour is also • Goal directed behaviour • The use of legitimate verbal or physical force (involving energy and effort which, outside sport could be interpreted as aggression) • Behaviour which has no intention to harm or injure • Behaviour which does not violate the agreed rules of the game

34. Theories of Aggression Nature or Nurture? • Are aggressive individuals born with certain innate characteristics • Are they a product of their learning and environmental influences

35. Instinct Theory • These theories view aggression as instinctive within human beings and developed as a result of evolution • Psychoanalytical approach – Freud is the first name associated with instinct theory. He argues that our innate aggressive tendencies are expressed in the self destructive or death instinct. This self-directed inner drive towards self aggression is balanced by our life instincts

36. Ethological Approach – human behaviour is compared with natural ritualistic behaviour of animals. The example at human attempts of territorial control (personal space?). If not released in some constructive way achieving catharsis it will inevitably lead to a form of spontaneous destructive or aggressive behaviour • Can sport help here?

37. Catharsis – for instinct theorists the view that sport can be used to ‘channel’ aggressive behaviour into more socially desirable behaviour (either as a performer or a spectator) is very important. It has been suggested though that watching sport rather than having a cathartic effect (drive reducing), watching aggressive behaviour may be drive enhancing

38. Criticisms of Instinct Theory • No biological innate aggressive drive has ever been identified • The measuring of any cathartic effect of aggression has proved difficult • Cross-cultural studies do not support the view that all human beings are naturally aggressive • Cultural influences are seen as being more important determinants of human aggression than biological factors • Aggression is not always seen as being spontaneous • Human aggression is seen as reactive and modifiable • Aggression is seen as a more learned response linked to the human ability to reason

39. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • This theory is linked in with the drive theory and it proposes that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always as a result of frustration • E.G. in a game of Rugby a player is trying to achieve (drive) a good performance and success (goal oriented behaviour). A player is continually tackled and sees the opposition constantly blocking the ball or encroaching (blocking of goal oriented behaviour), and become frustrated. They are then driven to do something about it (increase drive) possibly by playing or working harder. If the frustration continues, this drive may become an aggressive drive and result in breaking the rules or aggressive behaviour

40. Drive to Goal (need to win) Obstacle to a goal (continually being fouled) Frustration Aggression Punishment Success Catharsis

41. Self-efficacy

42. Definition • Self-efficacy is a persons belief that they have the necessary skill/ability to meet the demands of the situation/perform well • It can be referred to as self-confidence • It is situational/specific

43. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory • There are 4 stages to this theory • Prior success – highlight past achievements • Vicarious processes – observation/imitation • Verbal persuasion – positive motivation • Physiological signs – controlling arousal and anxiety This theory concentrates on how a persons self-confidence can affect their motivation and performance

44. Determinants • Self-efficacy can be specific to certain situations (e.g confident in one situation and not another) • This is because of the performers perceived competence in the situation • The performers perception of the situation and their self-efficacy will affect their • Choice of activity • Amount of effort applied • Level of persistence

45. Factors affecting self-efficacy • Performance accomplishments – previous success in the activity (eg. Tried a handstand and can do it) • Vicarious experiences – watching the activity being successfully carried out by others • Verbal persuasion – verbal encouragement by the coach • Emotional arousal – level of anxiety/fear

46. Self-efficacy may deteriorate if: • Feedback is too negative • The coach’s goal setting is unrealistic • The performer becomes more interested in the reward rather than the performance (intrinsic v extrinsic) • If external rewards are restricted to the ‘best’ performers rather than all those who achieve their targets

47. Strategies to combat low self-efficacy/ways of increasing confidence • Extrinsic motivation can aid short term self-efficacy if the short term targets are achievable • Enhancement of self-efficacy can be continued in the long term if the goal setting continues to be appropriate • The coach needs to stress the importance of the individual goal as opposed to the team goal • The coach needs to take account of the individuals personality/age/maturity/state-trait anxiety

48. Learned helplessness • A strong reaction to failure/negative events • Is when an individual believes that success is impossible when facing failure • The individual then gives up (even if success is still possible)

49. Lack of effort Can be specific to an activity Can be general to all activities Embarrassment Results from previous bad experiences Characteristics of learned helplessness Early failure in new activities supports perceived idea of lack of ability Attributable to uncontrollable/stable factors Reluctance to try new activities Feelings of low ability

50. Previous bad experience Lack of success attributed to stable factors (eg ability) Lack of previous success Causes of learned helplessness Negative feedback Criticism from teacher/parent/coach/peers