Developmental Theories of Learning

1. Developmental Theories of Learning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

2. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Outline • Overview of Development • Piaget’s Stages of Development • Case’s Central Conceptual Structures

3. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Jean Piaget • Brilliant Swiss • PhD in biology • Job administering intelligence tests to children • Intrigued by children’s mistakes on test • Realized errors were systematic and reflective of the child’s reasoning

4. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Assumptions • A small number of mental structures are the basis for thinking in a variety of domains • Children actively construct mental structures • The nature of mental structures change as children move to a new stage in development • Stage: Thinking and behavior in variety of situations reflect the basic mental structure • Within a stage, the mental structures are in a state of equilibrium • Disequilibrium forces children to change their mental structures and enter a new stage of development

5. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Characteristics of Stages • Advancement to a new stage represents a qualitative change in thinking • Changes are abrupt • Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence • Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage • Children progress through the stages in exact order • Individual differences in the rate of passing through through stages • May not reach highest stage

6. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Piaget’s Stages of Development

7. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos SensorimotorStage • Sensorimotor: Understand the environment from physical actions • Reflexes become more adaptive as infants learn to apply movements to novel situations • Behave in goal-directed manner • A-not-B error

8. Sensorimotor Stage From 0;2(3), Laurent evidences a circular reaction which will become more definite and will constitute the beginning of systematic grasping; he scratches and tries to grasp, lets go, scratches and grasps again, etc. On 0;2(3) and 0;2(6) this can only be observed during feeding. Laurent gently scratches his mother’s bare shoulder. But beginning 0;2(7), the behavior becomes marked in the cradle itself. Laurent scratches the sheet which is folded over the blankets, then grasps it and holds it a moment, then lets it go, scratches it again and recommences without interruption. Quoted from Piaget (1936, as cited in Miller, 2002)

9. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Sensorimotor Stage:Object Permanence • Object Permanence: Object exists even when one cannot sense it • Phase 1: If an object disappears, will not search for it • Phase 2: Only search for object if partially hidden or the object is taken while the child was engaged • Phase 3: A-not-B Error • Will search for an object in its first hiding spot • Phase 4: Continue to search for an object until it is found

10. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Pre-Operational Stage • Children enter the Pre-Operational stage when they acquire Object Permanence • Reflects the ability to mentally represent objects • Pre-Operations: Use symbols to represent objects and events • Egocentrism: Incomplete differentiation of self and the world • Difficulty taking another person’s points of view • “Americans are stupid. If I ask them where the rue du Mont-blanc is, they cannot tell me.” • Unidimensionality: Focus only on one dimension of a problem

11. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Pre-Operational Stage

12. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Concrete Operational Stage • Conservation: Physical properties of an object stay the same despite superficial changes in appearance • Performance on the conservation tasks reflects the presence or absence of mental operations • Mental operation: Internalized mental action on an object or event

13. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Concrete Operational Stage • Concrete Operations: Perform mental operations on concrete objects • Children understand: • Reversibility: Operations are reversible and the object will keep the same properties despite transformations • If pour the water back into the original glass, there will be the same amount • Class inclusion: One category can be included in another

14. Class Inclusion • E: What is your nationality? • C: I am Swiss • E: How come? • C: Because I live in Switzerland • E: Are you also Genevan? • C: No, that is not possible. I am already Swiss, I cannot also be Genevan. Quoted from Miller (2002)

15. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Formal Operational Stage • Formal operations: Mental operations are not limited to concrete objects but can also be applied to verbal logical statements • Children can think abstractly • What would have happened if the British had not colonized Nigeria? • Plan a systematic approach to solving a problem • Determine which mixture of five colorless liquids produces a yellow color

16. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Critique of Piaget • Characteristics of Stages • Each stage is a qualitative change in cognition • Catastrophe Theory: Sudden changes in cognition may actually represent a gradual progression • Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence • Not all cultures reach Formal Operations • Most adults rarely apply Formal Operations thinking • Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage • Egocentrism: Children asked to describe one picture from a group so well that another child can select the described picture (Siegler 1986) • Many Concrete Operations children fail this task

17. Catastrophe Theory

18. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Conclusion of Piaget • Contributions of Piaget • Children think differently than adults • Focus on children’s cognition • Main research questions: • What mental processes cause children to think differently than adults? • How do children represent their environment?

19. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Robbie Case • Similar to Piaget • Assumption that children develop in stages • Develop more sophisticated mental structures in each stage • Different from Piaget • Case incorporated elements of Information Processing Theory into the stages

20. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Robbie Case • Advancement to a new stage is the result of increased capacity in working memory • Increased efficiency by automatizing processes • Brain maturation increases working memory capacity • Each stage is represented by a different central conceptual structure • Central Conceptual Structures: Mental network of concepts used to represent and assign meaning to problems • Apply within culturally defined domains

21. Central Conceptual Structure:Numbers Predimensional Stage From Case (1996)

22. Central Conceptual Structure:Numbers Unimensional Stage From Case (1996)

23. From Okamoto & Case (1996)

24. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Central Conceptual Structures • Case’s stages • Predimensional: Two independent schemas of quantity • Non-numerical, Counting • Unidimensional: Merged schemas, but represent on one dimension • Bidimensional: Can compare two mental number lines together • Integrated Bidimensional: Generalize relationships to entire number system • Through development • Children consider more elements • Elements become more organized into a structure

25. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Domains of Thought • Numerical: Counting and non-numerical representation • Social: Theories of mind and scripts of the sequence of events • False belief task • Spatial: Represent a 3D object on paper and represent the relative locations of objects

26. From Case, Stephenson, Bleiker, & Okamoto (1996) C A B D

27. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Implications for Instruction • The learning environment should support the stage where the learner is at • Interaction with peers fosters cognitive development • Provide a learning situation in which the child experiences disequilibrium

28. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Developmental Overview • Learning Outcomes: More advanced cognitive structures that assist in thinking and accurately representing the environment • Role of the Learner: Actively develop cognitive structures; Experience disequilibrium • Role of the Instructor: Ask probing questions to illustrate the inconsistencies in children’s thinking • Inputs for Learning: Concrete materials to manipulate; Cognitive conflicts that prompt disequilibrium • Process of Learning: Progression through stages of cognitive development

29. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Revision • Describe Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. • What teaching modifications should you make for each stage? • Describe Case’s four stages of cognitive development. • What teaching modifications should you make for each stage?