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対称性の生物学的由来 Biological origin of symmetry

対称性の生物学的由来 Biological origin of symmetry. 山﨑 由美子. 独立行政法人理化学研究所 象徴概念発達研究チーム. 非論理的推論としての対称性 / 刺激等価性. Stimulus equivalence/ Equivalence relations 刺激等価性 / 等価関係 (Sidman) > 対称性. - A relation that arises between stimuli without any perceptual similarity

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対称性の生物学的由来 Biological origin of symmetry

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  1. 対称性の生物学的由来Biological origin of symmetry 山﨑 由美子 独立行政法人理化学研究所 象徴概念発達研究チーム

  2. 非論理的推論としての対称性/ 刺激等価性 Stimulus equivalence/ Equivalence relations 刺激等価性/ 等価関係 (Sidman) > 対称性 • - A relation that arises between stimuli without any perceptual similarity • Formed through the shaping of functionally identical responses (Yamamoto, 1992) • - Stimulus substitutability(Green & Saunders, 1998)

  3. 対称性 Symmetry APPLE ORANGE Auditory stimulus Visual stimulus Matching-to-sample procedure

  4. Conditional discriminations vs. Matching-to-sample? Sample Matching-to-sample a R b Conditional discriminations If a, then b ならば ならば いくつかの条件性弁別 見本刺激と比較刺激の交換可能性を含めた刺激間の学習

  5. Robust evidence in human subjects • Sidman (1971):Microcephaly • Sidman & Cresson (1973):Down’s syndrome • Sidman et al. (1982):4- and 5-year children • Lipkens et al. (1993):symmetry in normal children up to 17-months old • Yamamoto (1994):severe autistic child without productive language • O'Donnell & Saunders (2003): severe mental retardation without functional language ・言語が対称性の必要条件ではない ・シンボルを使ったコミュニケーションを可能にする条件の一つ?

  6. Failures found in Non-human subjects

  7. なぜヒト以外の動物では対称性がほとんど示されないのかなぜヒト以外の動物では対称性がほとんど示されないのか • ヒトとヒト以外の動物では対称性に限らず、認知能力一般に違いが大きい --- 基本的認知能力の差 • 対称性もヒト以外の動物に教えればできる --- 行動履歴の差 • 対称性を支える神経基盤がヒト以外の動物にはないのでは --- 神経機構の差

  8. Cognitive properties in humans Cognitive properties in nonhuman animals Discrimination Categorization Abstraction Concept Reasoning Numerosity .... ? 認知能力の差? Discrimination symmetry この辺? Categorization by rote by feature Degree of abstraction Concept natural concept relational concept abstract concept symmetry この辺? Modified from Herrnstein (1990)

  9. 行動履歴の差? 確かに、行動履歴は対称性成立に影響を及ぼしている ・”Multiple exemplar training” --- たくさん訓練した後、未訓練刺激を使って転移をテストする Schusterman & Kastak (1993) ・equivalence relations in a sea lion ・trained with 12 pairs, tested on remaining 18 pairs ・”Repeated training and testing” --- 訓練とテストを重ねると等価性反応が増えていく Yamamoto & Asano (1995) ・Facilitation was observed after repeated training and testing in a chimpanzee 対称性テストにさらされることが大事?

  10. 行動履歴の差? Symmetry can be generalized in any species? A1-B1 A2-B2 A3-B3 A4-B4 A1-B1 A2-B2 A3-B3 A4-B4 A1-B1 A2-B2 A3-B3 A4-B4 1. BASELINE 2. SYMMETRY TRAINING 3. SYMMETRY TEST デンショバト

  11. みかん A B = Orange みかん GO (food) Orange りんご りんご Apple = Apple NOGO (no food) Arbitrary MTS “if A, then B” (Equivalence relations) Repeated reversals “A≡B” (Functional equivalence) 行動履歴の差? Functional equivalence: Equivalence through sharing outcomes

  12. Symmetry in Set 1 Symmetry in Set 2 Functional Equivalence Stimulus equivalence 行動履歴の差? 対称性は”般化”、”転移”するような性質のものではない

  13. 行動履歴の差? 言語訓練を受けたことのある被験体は?

  14. 行動履歴の差? ・どんな種でも、ある特定の履歴を、一定時間与えればよいというものではない ・それ以上の要因があるはず(種特異的なバイアスの存在、特殊な神経基盤) “own biases of operation” (Rumbaugh, 1995)

  15. 行動履歴以上とは? Perfect establishment of equivalence relations in California sea lions - BA, CB, AC, CA - functional equivalence - generalized identity - exclusion Schusterman & Kastak, 2002

  16. 行動履歴以上とは? 対称性を示す種のバイアスの源は何か Intimate relationship between mother and child multi-modal matching is required in pups Social structure within-group communication Social communications between-group communication (ex. fighting) (Schusterman et al., 2000) 他者との関係 社会構造 A組 B組 C組

  17. 行動履歴以上とは? Lessons from successful subjects: 対称性が成立したヒト以外の動物間の共通性 • 対称性が成立したヒト以外の動物の共通項 • Chimpanzee (Tomonaga et al. 1991) • California sea lions (ex. Schusterman & Kastak, 1993) Generalized identity matching 「同じ」の概念 Matching by exclusion 排他律

  18. 行動履歴以上とは? Generalized Identity Matching • A ならば A, B ならばB • どんな時、どんな場所にあろうと、「おなじ」とみなす Sample Sample Matching by Exclusion Sample • A ならば B → A でないならば Bでない • 相互排他性、一対一対応の原則 • アシカ、イルカ、チンパンジー 訓練 テスト

  19. 行動履歴以上とは? “Logical” development of exclusion involving “illogical” inference Lipkens et al., 1993 • 条件法ができる • 対称性が成立する • 1と2の対偶ができる (排他律) • 条件法ができる • 対称性、続いて排他律が成立する • 1の対偶ができる はじめに非論理的推論(生物学的バイアスのかかった発達) その後論理的推論(認知操作の発達)

  20. 神経機構の差? Dickins et al. (2001) Verbal fluency 推移性○ 推移性× No Broca’s area, Left lateralization in DLPFC & BA10 Dickins et al., 2001

  21. A B C Feedback Response 0ms 1500 2300 Ogawa, Yamazaki, Ueno, Cheng, Iriki (2007). Neural correlates of human specific illogicality in stimulus equivalence paradigm. Subject : adult human

  22. A Training(feedback) B Check (>90% Correct) C fMRI(differential/ nondifferential feedback) Trained relations (10) Untrained (5) and trained (5) relations Fixation Baseline Test

  23. * * * n.s. * n.s. * * Behavioral result Generalization : CB symmetry?

  24. Imaging Result (p<.005, FDR corrected) • BA (BA > AB) • CB (CB > BC)

  25. AC (AC > AB, BC) • CA (CA > AB, BC)

  26. IPA (intraparietal area, area 7) : illogically symmetrical inference is made by ignoring relational orders RPFC (right prefrontal cortex, 46) : decision that presented pairs are trained or untrained, abstract category in fornto-parietal network. MFC (medial prefrontal cortex, 8(6,9)) : finding whether the presented stimuli were trained or untrained. Category formation involved. Sensitive to conflict, discrepancy and error (Yeung 2006; Ridderinkhof 2004; Rushworth 2001).

  27. p q Generalized Identity Matching Symmetry Conditional discriminations Generalized Identity Matching Symmetry Exclusion, Transitivity Conditional discriminations Generalized Identity Matching Symmetry Exclusion, Transitivity logical Illogical + logical

  28. Conditional discriminations Generalized Identity Matching Symmetry, Exclusion, Transitivity, Equivalence Conditional discriminations Generalized Identity Matching Symmetry, Exclusion, Transitivity, Equivalence Symbol acquisition/ Symbol manipulation IPC Parieto-frontal connection General Cognitive manipulation PFC Illogical logical

  29. 対称性の成立に関わる脳部位、神経連絡の推定対称性の成立に関わる脳部位、神経連絡の推定 神経連絡を構築するアプローチ?

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