transitional settlement: displaced populations

Case study:Sudanese refugees, Kenya, 1995 trainer name 2004 transitional settlement: displaced populations

case study • background • description of the Kakuma camp • situation profile • profile of potential sites • forced migrant profile • local population profile • environmental profile case study transitional settlement: displaced populations

case study war in the Sudan civil war had been ongoing in the Sudan since 1983 between: the Muslim Khartoum government in the north and the non-Muslim Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) in the south background

case study loss of SPLA territory in the early 1990’s, the SPLA had lost a great deal of their previously occupied territory shari’a law was re-imposed and enforced in the south (UNHCR, 1997) shari’a law: traditional islamic law also rendered in english as ‘sharia’ or ‘shariah’ background

case study establishment of Kakuma camp tens of thousands of refugees fled from the Sudan into north-western Kenya in 1992 in July 1992, a camp for 20,000 refugees was established by UNHCR near the town of Kakuma by 1995, when the study was carried out, the camp population had grown to 60,000, including small populations of Somali and Ethiopian refugees it was widely believed that rebels affiliated with the SPLA travelled to and stayed in the camp for short periods background

case study resentment from local population the local Nilotic Turkana pastoralists resented the amount of aid received by the refugees the fragile local environment meant that there was often insufficient food to support the Turkana there was considerable conflict between locals and refugees over environmental resources, although many Turkana derived their livelihood from selling charcoal to refugees Nilotic: a group of languages belonging to East Africa pastoralism: a form of social organisation based on animal husbandry and herding background

case study resentment from local population in response to a series of famines IDP camps and feeding centres had previously been established for the Turkana in the 1960s with some maintained until the 1980s food shortages became such a feature of life that a common greeting amongst the Turkana is ‘I’m all right, just a bit hungry’ (Nimpuno 1995) background

case study the site was on a spit of land defined by the convergence of two rivers, the Lodoret and the Tarach the site was approximately 100 km from the Sudanese border and 50 km from the Ugandan border the site was on a semi-arid plain at the foot of the Murua Ngithiggerr hills, 1700 m above sea level the area receives around 340 mm of rain a year description of the Kakuma camp

case study the Government of Kenya (GoK) used the site to consolidate refugee populations within the country different sectors of the site accommodated communities of Sudanese, Somali, Ethiopian, Ugandan, Rwandese and Burundian refugees different factions within the Sudanese communities, reflecting factions within the SPLA, caused Sudanese sectors to reform periodically description of the Kakuma camp

case study agency infrastructure was centred near the main road and Kakuma village itself, within and around the compound of an old road construction company water supply was from boreholes, while latrines were built for sanitation provision description of the Kakuma camp

case study • security situation in the region and in the migrant and host populations • movement in the northern Turkana region was dangerous due to: • militant Turkana tribesmen • SPLA forces secretly operating in the area • the Turkana resented the amount of aid received by the refugees and their use of local natural resources • travel by aid agencies was always by armed escort situation profile

case study points of entry or sources of influxes Sudanese refugees entered from the border with the Sudan, via Uganda, and via a transit centre near the border at Lokichogio Somali and Ethiopian refugees were transferred from other border transit camps to the east situation profile

case study host government policy and attitude towards influxes as in the case of the Dadaab Refugee Complex for Somalis, refugees were used by the Government of Kenya (GoK) as political pawns access by migrants to employment GoK prevented access to employment by refugees situation profile

case study contingency plans already in place for migrant influxes it was quickly determined that the border transit camp at Lokichogio was too close to the border to act as a refugee camp there were plans to expand the Kakuma camp to the north in the event of future significant influxes situation profile

case study regional development plans in operation or planned no GoK projects were in evidence missionary groups and NGOs did operate small programmes, for example there was support for the hospital relief agencies, coordinated by UNHCR ran ‘parallel projects’ to the refugee programme in an effort to reduce tensions between the refugees and local people situation profile

case study • external and local agencies operating regionally • over 80 agencies were based in Lokichogio in support of Operation Sudan Lifeline • organisations operating in the Kakuma camp included: • UNHCR • WFP • Lutheran World Federation (LWF) • International Rescue Committee (IRC) • Don Bosco • Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) • Raedda Barnen • Jesuit Relief Service (JRS) • National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) situation profile

case study access and supply routes, security concerns and seasonal variations all-weather access was provided by a sealed road from Lodwar to Lokichogio, which ran past the camp bridges over the two rivers near the Kakuma camp were vulnerable to a large flood there was a gravelled air strip in Kakuma profile of potential sites

case study proximity to local settlements, local agriculture, and other refugee camps Kakuma village was next to the camp, and expanded after the camp was built agency infrastructure was based around a series of buildings built by a road engineering company there was little local agriculture as the traditional activity in Turkana was pastoralism the transit camp at Lokichogio was the closest other refugee population pastoralism: a form of social organisation based on animal husbandry and herding profile of potential sites

case study land use by locals for agriculture, grazing, fuelwood collection, hunting land was used to support the pastoralist herding of cattle, goats, camels and donkeys grazing and wood harvesting was already close to or beyond their sustainable limits, not counting the impact of the refugees the Turkana population was sedentarising sedentarising: i.e. becoming settled permanently profile of potential sites

case study standing water and other opportunities for vector proliferation there were no large areas where water could collect in the rainy season latrines were relatively well maintained profile of potential sites

case study area suitable for occupation the land area suitable for refugee occupation was bounded by the two rivers and the road extension sites had been identified to the north, although some of the areas tended to flood and may have had problems with access during the rains profile of potential sites

case study topography, surface water drainage patterns the area between the rivers was almost flat surface water drained into these rivers during the rains during the hot season, both river beds ran dry serious erosion was happening along the river edges profile of potential sites

case study vegetation cover, influencing soil erosion, shading, and wind shielding there were trees near the river and around the site this was unusual for the area, which was semi-arid Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) ran a programme to plant more trees profile of potential sites

case study soil conditions, such as suitability for latrines, drainage and agriculture soil was a mix of sand and river silt there was clay in the area pit latrines drained well and needed no wall reinforcement kitchen gardens were visible between a large number of the shelters profile of potential sites

case study reasons for flight long-running civil war in Sudan between the mainly Muslim north and the Christian and Animist south number in current influx and estimated size of imminent influx there were around 60,000 refugees in the camp continued fighting in the Sudan provided a continued threat of new influx, which might have been of any size forced migrant profile

case study • physical condition and vulnerable groups • the refugees were in relatively good health • vulnerable groups included: • young men • non-Sudanese refugees • some women • endemic diseases in home areas • malaria and cholera were prevalent forced migrant profile

case study ethnic or economic links with host population in a published study (Fox, 1999) almost half the Turkana population surveyed had economic links with refugees the same study stated that the Turkana and refugees used a barter system, with no common form of currency Turkana trading charcoal to refugees in return for refugee food rations was a major commercial activity the Sudanese Dinka and Kenyan Turkana both speak Nilotic languages Nilotic: a group of languages belonging to East Africa forced migrant profile

case study • composition: ethnicity, origin, caste, gender, age and family size • the vast majority of the refugees were Sudanese • there was a higher than normal proportion of adolescent males and a lower than normal proportion of males in their late teens and twenties • this was because: • the adolescent males were being targeted by Sudanese security forces back in the Sudan • many in the older age groups were enlisted with the various rebel forces forced migrant profile

case study backgrounds and skill bases, whether urbanites, farmers or pastoralists Sudanese refugees were either farmers or pastoralists Ethiopians were mainly urban traders Somalis were mainly pastoralists forced migrant profile

case study • leadership, politicisation and cohesion of communities • ethnically-Sudanese communities in the camps were: • highly politicised in support of rebel resistance to northern Sudanese forces • factionalised into five major groups forced migrant profile

case study presence of intimidating or violent factions there was strong factionalised leadership but it rarely became violent informal ‘deals’ were made between UNHCR and the refugees to ensure that no military hardware was visible in the camp or the region, such as guns or armed vehicles forced migrant profile

case study livestock and its distribution amongst the migrants livestock was not allowed, although some chickens were kept connections with any land under cultivation in home areas news from home areas would reach the refugee population via traffic between the camp and the Sudan but there were no physical connections forced migrant profile

case study traditional settlement patterns and shelter construction practices in village areas, the Sudanese traditionally built houses of wattle and daub with distinctive thatched roofs traditional patterns of water use, such as quantity used water use was under 10 litres per person, per day where supply was scarce, not including livestock forced migrant profile

case study • traditional patterns of water use, such as quantity used • water use was under 10 litres per person, per day where supply was scarce, not including livestock • traditional cooking practices, such as how much fuelwood is used • traditional patterns were not assessed • however, in the camps, the Sudanese refugees used: • 0.8 kg of fuelwood per person, per day • 1.2 kg of charcoal per person, per day forced migrant profile

case study • endemic diseases: • malaria • sleeping sickness • typhoid • typhus • cholera • AIDS • land use practices and land law • formal written title deeds were not common • land ownership was however, well defined, both formally and informally local population profile

case study agricultural and livestock practices suitable in the area there was little agriculture, although a considerable business in charcoal production for refugees The Turkana were pastoralists, herding cattle, camels, goats and donkeys local population profile

case study use and sources of environmental resources, such as water and wood water use depended to some extent on the proximity to water local water use near the camps was not significantly affected by the refugee presence some draw on the water table was noticed, affecting pumping in shallow wells a wind-driven pump had been built in Kakuma town selling charcoaland firewood was a common activity even before the arrival of the refugee population local population profile

case study economic profile the economy of the region was very depressed tourism was beginning in southern areas the Turkana, with their subsistence pastoralist economy, were generally poorer than the refugees local population profile

case study water sources, quantity, location and quality a number of boreholes and submersible pumps, run from generators, supplied water via a treatment and storage system the water table was too deep to hand pump for most of the year pumping was limited as draw down had been noticed environmental profile

case study carrying capacity for extraction of fuelwood and construction materials fuelwood harvesting and charcoal production had already had a significant impact locally sustainable regional sources were being used for all distributed construction poles and firewood distribution did not however, meet the total need environmental profile

case study vulnerable areas or areas with global ecological significance the area immediately surrounding the camp was becoming vulnerable, due to fuelwood harvesting the rivers were causing erosion on the banks next to the camp environmental profile

case study seasonal variations, impacting on water and environmental resources heavy rains produced a flooding risk the rainwater catchment area draining into the two rivers bordering the camp was very large, including areas in Uganda the entire camp site between the rivers had flooded in the past environmental profile

transitional settlement: displaced populations