Cognitive explanations of learning

2. Chapter 5 Cognitive explanations of learning

3. Chapter objectives Identify the key principles of cognitive learning theory and contrast these with the behavioural approach Describe three forms of the information processing model of learning (multistore, levels of processing and connectionist) Distinguish between a range of cognitive styles and comment on their impact on learning (Cont’d next slide)

4. Chapter objectives (cont’d) Explain the role of metacognition in learning and memory Identify four key principles of constructivism and discuss ways of putting these into practice in the classroom

5. Chapter 5 concept map

6. Cognitive learning theory Focuses on: internal mental processes and their role in learning making meaning out of information and experience how learners manipulate new and familiar information learning as a process of acquiring new ways of processing information and revising existing processes

7. The information processing approach Depicts how mental processes operate See the human mind as a computer that processes information from external sources, then stores and retrieves it Thinking is a rational process Memory is central to information processing

8. The multistore model of information processing Depicts information processing as a sequence of discrete stages Each stage has a different processing function (Cont’d next slide) <DTO: insert Fig. 5.2 (p. 138, Ed. Psych.)>

9. The multistore model of information processing (cont’d) Sensory register: new information enters through the senses and is stored for less than a second Short-term memory (STM): a temporary storage place with the capacity to store approximately seven items Strategies for remembering information in STM: chunking is when related items are grouped into a single meaningful unit rehearsal is where information is repeated and practised to aid storage and retrieval (Cont’d next slide)

10. Multistore model of information processing (cont’d) Long-term memory (LTM) is a permanent storage facility for information Types of LTM: episodic – memories of events semantic – memories about language and the world around us procedural – memories about procedures for performing a skill

11. The levels of processing model Focuses on the depth of processing and how this affects our ability to recall information: deep processing is where information has our full attention and is analysed and associated with existing knowledge, thus enhancing recall shallow processing is where information is processed superficially and soon forgotten

12. Connectionist model The brain is depicted as a complex network of interconnected units of information Information is stored in patterns of connectivity (neural networks)

13. Why and how learners forget Information processing models suggest we forget because: we fail to pay adequate attention to information during the sensory register and short-term memory (STM) stages STM is limited in capacity, so we do not remember everything long-term memory (LTM) decays interference occurs – new memories interfere with LTMs, and this makes retrieval difficult we do not use the right cues to retrieve information – cue-dependent forgetting

14. Information and knowledge Information becomes knowledge when we act upon it cognitively to make meaning for ourselves Types of knowledge: declarative (knowing that) procedural (knowing how) conditional (knowing when and how)

15. Strengths and limitations of the information processing approach Strengths Depicts the complexity of cognitive processing Allows for close analysis of cognitive processes and thus helps educators understand how learners think Emphasises the importance of memory and how to enhance recall Depicts the interconnectedness of cognitive processes and memory

16. Limitations Sequential depictions of information processing do not represent the complexity of neural networks There is over-reliance on the computer as an analogy for how humans think The model fails to consider environmental, genetic and cultural influences on information processing

17. Metacognition: Managing cognitive processes Thinking about thinking Metacognition is an executive control process overseeing cognitive activity; it includes self-monitoring and self-regulation

18. Metacognitive knowledge Person knowledge is knowledge about your own cognition and your understanding of others as cognitive processors Task knowledge is the knowledge that different tasks require different cognitive skills and approaches Strategy knowledge is the knowledge of a range of metacognitive strategies including planning, monitoring and evaluating

19. Examples of metacognitive strategies

20. Metacognitive experiences Metacognitive experiences include feelings associated with particular cognitive activities (such as anxiety when you realise you do not understand what the lecturer is talking about) Metacognitive experiences are connected to self-esteem (e.g. if we feel confident about regulating our cognitive processing, we will feel more positive about ourselves and our abilities)

21. Dimensions of metacognition

22. Metacognitive development Metacognition typically develops as children develop the increasing capacity for abstract thought, as well as the ability to self-reflect and self-regulate Some research shows evidence of metacognition in younger children, but the skill develops most notably among adolescents

23. Metacognitive strategies and learning Research suggests a positive relationship between performance on academic tasks and learners’ ability to use metacognitive strategies (Lucangeli, Coi & Bosco, 1997) Studies of students with learning disabilities show that metacognitive-strategy instruction enhances learners’ thinking and social skills (Rosenthal-Malek, 1997)

24. Metacognitive strategies across cultures Sociocultural factors may influence the ways individuals think about themselves and their own thinking (i.e. their metacognitive knowledge and strategy use) Research findings on cross-cultural differences in metacognitive strategy use are equivocal, but some differences between cultures have been noted (see text, p. 148)

25. Cognitive style Individuals have preferred ways of perceiving, processing and remembering information – that is, they have different cognitive styles Individuals also have preferences for approaching learning and learning contexts – that is, they have different learning styles

26. Perceptual style: Field dependence–independence Field-dependent learners perceive items, events or information as part of a broader context, or ‘field’. They depend on that context to help them understand and perceive Field-independent learners perceive individual items, events and information analytically, as distinct and independent from the broader context, or field

27. What is your perceptual style?

28. Conceptual tempo: impulsivity–reflectivity Impulsive learners have a cognitive preference for rapid problem-solving Reflective learners have a cognitive preference for taking time to analyse and reflect on problems; they tend to respond more slowly and deliberately when completing tasks

29. Deep and surface learning Learners with a deep approach to learning are typically intrinsically motivated to study and are interested in taking time to make meaning of the learning experience for themselves: they tend to use problem-solving strategies (e.g. questioning, planning and evaluating) to maximise their understanding Learners with a surface approach typically have extrinsic motivations and use memorisation strategies to learn Different approaches to learning may be used in different contexts, depending on the purpose

30. Sociocultural factors and cognitive style Sociocultural factors have been found to influence learners’ preferred ways of thinking and learning Social structures and processes influence the types of activities learners engage in and value These structures, in turn, have a powerful effect on cognitive development and preferred cognitive styles

31. Approaches to learning in the classroom There is some research support for matching students’ preferred cognitive and learning styles to classroom practices Aptitude–treatment interaction is the relationship between learner characteristics and the characteristics of the learning situation

32. Constructivism Constructivism is an explanation of learning that views it as a self-regulated process that builds on learners’ existing knowledge and in which learners are active participants Psychological constructivism focuses on individual learners and on how they construct their own knowledge, beliefs and identity Social constructivism acknowledges the role of social and cultural factors in shaping learning

33. Key principles of constructivism Learners are active participants Learners are self-regulated Social interaction is necessary for effective learning Individuals are encouraged to make sense of information for themselves

34. Constructivism in the classroom context Encourage learner-centred experiences and activities Provide opportunities for students to work together Assist novice learners to develop expertise

35. Encouraging learner-centred experiences and activities In discovery learning, the learner actively manipulates materials or ideas in the learning environment, and discovers connections between them: guided discovery is problem-solving accompanied by teacher direction open discovery is problem-solving without close monitoring from the teacher

36. Providing opportunities for students to work together Cooperative learning means organising classroom activities so that students must work together to gain rewards for themselves and the group Collaborative learning is where students work in groups with more autonomy and somewhat less teacher involvement than in cooperative learning Peer-assisted learning encourages peers to help one another to learn and, in turn, to learn by teaching (this may involve cross-age tutoring or peer tutoring)

37. Assisting novice learners to develop expertise Cognitive apprenticeships occur when an ‘expert’ (more experienced person) guides a ‘novice’ learner and helps the learner to learn The learning process is seen as a partnership Reciprocal teaching combines teacher intervention and student-directed learning: peers assist one another; learning is guided by an expert who scaffolds group-thinking processes and problem-solving

38. Strengths and limitations of constructivism Strengths Acknowledges learners as active ‘constructors’ of their own meaning Attaches importance to prior learning and background knowledge Encourages social networks in learning environments Provides practical guidelines for educators who want to encourage student interaction and groupwork in their classrooms (Cont’d next slide)

39. Limitations Encouraging student-centred learning may be time-consuming Teachers – especially in high schools – face pressures regarding curriculum coverage, which may limit their ability to implement constructivist principles Developing groupwork skills takes time and experience – students need specific skills, and not all groupwork is efficient and effective Some teachers may be daunted by classroom-management concerns when managing groupwork

40. Chapter review Cognitive learning theory The information processing approach Metacognition: Managing cognitive processes Cognitive style Constructivism