PSY 321 Research Methods in Social Psychology Dr. Sanchez

1. PSY 321Research Methods in Social Psychology Dr. Sanchez

2. Today’s Plan • Developing Ideas • Refining Ideas • Testing Ideas

3. Developing Ideas

4. Beginning the Research Process • Step #1: Start asking questions. • Step #2: Search the literature. • Step #3: Begin shaping the idea into a hypothesis: • An explicit, testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur

5. Theories • An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. • Usually evaluated in terms of three criteria: • Simplicity (Parsimony). • Comprehensiveness. • Generativity • Preference for “mini-theories” rather than the all-encompassing grand theory.

6. Basic and Applied Research • Basic research: Designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory. • Identifies “basic” principles underlying real-world phenomena. • Applied research: Designed to find solutions to practical problems. • “Applies” basic research findings to real-world phenomena.

7. Refining Ideas Defining and Measuring Social Psychological Variables

8. Conceptual & Operational Definitions • empirical realization • translating the conceptual or abstract variables contained in your hypothesis to real, measurable constructs • conceptual variable – abstract level • operational variable – the way you measure the conceptual variable

9. Effects of Guilt (Regan, Williams, & Sparling, 1972) • people who feel guilty are more likely to help others than people who do not feel guilty • description of study • Ps were asked to take a paid actor’s (i.e., a confederate) picture in mall • Operationalization of guilt • ½ Ps were induced to believe that they had broken his very expensive camera • ½ Ps were informed that the camera malfunctioned all of the time; they were not responsible

10. Construct Validity • Used to evaluate the manipulation and measurement of variables. • Refers to the extent to which: • The manipulations in an experiment really manipulate the conceptual variables they were designed to manipulate. • The measures (often self-report) used in the study really measure the conceptual variables

11. Measuring Variables: Self-Reports • Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions. • Problems with self-reports: • Not always accurate and possibly misleading. • Bogus Pipeline • Affected by the way in which questions are asked.

12. How Many Hours of TV Do You Watch?(Schwarz et al. 1985)

13. Measuring Variables: Self-Reports • Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions. • Problems with self-reports: • Not always accurate and possibly misleading. • Social desirable responding • Bogus Pipeline • Affected by the way in which questions are asked. • Affected by participants’ memory for past events • How can we compensate for that????

14. EXPERIENCE SAMPLING • Interval contingent • Participants are asked to report “state” feelings at regular intervals. • Signal contingent • Participants are asked to report “state” feelings upon signal. • Event contingent • Participants are asked to report “state” feelings in certain situations (at school, work, with family)

15. Testing Ideas Research Designs

16. Descriptive Research • Goal is to describe people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. • Observational studies • Interrater reliability • Archival studies = existing records • Surveys • Importance of random sampling • A method of selection in which everyone in a population has an equal chance of selection

17. Most Common Methods • We’ll focus on two other methods: • Correlational designs • Experimental designs

18. Correlational Designs • Represents the strength of the relationship between two variables • e.g., # of hours of media exposure to violence & level of aggression • e.g., sickness/illness and optimism • e.g., ability to delay gratification as a child and success in college • Concurrent v. Prospective • Correlation coefficient (“r”) ranges from +1 to -1 • e.g., r = +.34 • e.g., r = -.52

19. Interpreting Correlations • Positive correlation • increase in exposure associated with increase in aggression • Negative correlation • increase in exposure associated with decrease in aggression • No correlation • Variables are not related

20. Correlations: Positive, Negative, and None

21. Correlation ≠ Causation

22. Why can’t we infer causality? • Reverse-Causality Problem X → Y or Y ← X Is there a relationship between exposure to violent TV and aggression?

23. Why can’t we infer causality? • Reverse-Causality Problem X → Y or Y ← X • Third-variable problem A → X and A → Y e.g., ice cream sales (X) and violence (Y) (r = +.29) What is A in these cases? What is the third variable that can explain this relationship? VERY IMPORTANT FOR INTERPRETING NEWS ABOUT HEALTH RESEARCH!!!

24. NEW YORK TIMES ARTICLECoffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits • “Researchers have found strong evidence that coffee reduces the risk of several serious ailments, including diabetes, heart disease and cirrhosis of the liver.” • “Still, after controlling for age, smoking and alcohol consumption, women who drank one to five cups a day — caffeinated or decaffeinated — reduced their risk of death from all causes during the study by 15 to 19 percent compared with those who drank none.”

25. Explaining Correlations: Three Possibilities

26. Advantages of Correlational Methods • Allow assessment of behavior as it occurs in people’s everyday lives • Allow study of variables that cannot be studied in experimental designs • Gender, Age, Race • Establishes that a relationships between 2 variables exists • One very serious disadvantage • CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!

27. Experiments • Cornerstone of social psychological research. • Used to examine cause-and-effect relationships. • Two essential characteristics: • Researcher has control over the experimental procedures. • Participants are randomly assigned to different treatment conditions.

28. Random Sampling Selecting Ps to be in study so that everyone in population has an equal chance of being in the study. Representative samples  Generalization Random Assignment Assigning Ps (who are already in study) to the different conditions so that each P as equal chance of being in any of the conditions. Equalizes the conditions of experiment so that it is unlikely that conditions differ because of pre-existing differences Required for inferences of causality. Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment

29. Variables • Independent Variable • variable that we expect causes an outcome • the antecedent event • variable that the experimenter can control and manipulate • Dependent Variable • the variables measured to see if they are affected by IV • “the outcome variable” or “the effect” • it’s value depends on the changes introduced by the IV

30. IVs and Conditions • Must have two conditions (also called “levels”) of the IV in order to demonstrate that the IV has an effect on the DV • Experimental group (IV present) vs. control group (IV not present) • Example • interested in mood and helping • experimental group – told they received “A” or “F” • control group – does not grade feedback

31. Laboratory Experiments • Conducted in settings in which: • The environment can be controlled. • E.g., odor, the noise level • The participants can be carefully studied. • E.g., Ps remain in the same seat, can be recorded, etc.

32. Field Experiments • Conducted in real-world settings. • Advantage: People are more likely to act naturally. • Disadvantage: Experimenter has less control (“quasi-experiments”).

33. METHODS • Film: “Understanding Research”, Episode 2 of series, “Discovering Psychology” • Available at Media Library (Kilmer) • Next class: Finish Research Methods Lecture (Chapter 2), Begin “The Self” (Chapter 3)

35. Some exercises

36. Crusco & Wetzel (1984) • interested in how touching influences individuals’ perceptions of others • description of study • waitress performed normal duties • when she gave change to customer, she approached the paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s your change.” • 1/3 – no touch control condition • 1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition • 1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition • left a blank survey for customers to complete • collected survey and tip

37. Crusco & Wetzel (1984) • interested in how touching influences individuals’ perceptions of others • description of study • waitress performed normal duties • when she gave change to customer, she approached the paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s your change.” • 1/3 – no touch control condition • 1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition • 1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition • left a blank survey for customers to complete • collected survey and tip • IV: nature of physical contact • DV: ratings of waitress on Q’aire and amt of tip

38. A social psychologist wants to assess the optimal level of crowd noise for enhancing the shooting accuracy of professional basketball players. She has individual professional basketball players shoot free throws in a gym as she varies the intensity of crowd noise by playing an audiotape of a crowd at low, medium, and high levels. She randomly assigns the players to the conditions. IV: Conditions: DV: Design:

39. A social psychologists wants to assess the optimal level of crowd noise for enhancing the shooting accuracy of professional basketball players. She has individual professional basketball players shoot free throws in a gym as she varies the intensity of crowd noise by playing an audiotape of a crowd at low, medium, and high levels. She randomly assigns the players to the conditions. IV: Crowd Noise Conditions: low, medium, high DV: shooting accuracy of free throws Design: True experiment

40. Two psychologists are interested in the effects of mood on helping (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). They go to shopping malls and set up observation near phone booths. Their participants are individuals who use the phone booths when the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the Ps, the researchers leave a quarter to be found near the booth. For all of the Ps, when the phone call is completed and the person leaves the telephone booth, a confederate walks by the booth, and drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers watch to see if the Ps help pick up the dropped papers.

41. Conceptual IV: Mood DV: Helping Operational IV: finds a quarter DV: help pick up paper Two psychologists are interested in the effects of mood on helping (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). They go to shopping malls and set up observation near phone booths. Their participants are individuals who use the phone booths when the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the Ps, the researchers leave a quarter to be found near the booth. For all of the Ps, when the phone call is completed and the person leaves the telephone booth, a confederate walks by the booth, and drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers watch to see if the Ps help pick up the dropped papers.

42. Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess how performing a difficult task under pressure influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult ones. Crossed with this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are given 30 minutes to complete the task. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, Ps are given a Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire” that is really a measure of self-esteem.

43. Conceptual IV1: task difficulty IV2: pressure DV: self-esteem Operational IV1: easy vs. hard IV2: 10 vs. 30 minutes DV: score on Q’aire Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess how performing a difficult task under pressure influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult ones. Crossed with this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are given 30 minutes to complete the task. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, Ps are given a Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire” that is really a measure of self-esteem.