Research Methods in Psychology

1. Research Methods in Psychology

2. Critical Thinking

3. What is Critical Thinking? Critical thinking is the process of assessing claims and making judgments on the basis of well-supported evidence. When using critical thinking, try to ask these questions: • What am I being asked to believe or accept? • What evidence is available to support the assertion? • Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence? • What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives? • What conclusions are most reasonable?

4. Common Myths Proven Wrong • Many children are injured each year in the U.S. by poisoned candy or candy with sharp objects: Incredibly rare, and only documented case of poison came from the child’s parent. • If your roommate commits suicide in college, you get all A’s that semester: No school has a policy on this. • People have died due to Spontaneous Combustion: All instances of people burning to death came from external ignition. • You can’t fool a lie detector: Very false, and we’ll see why later.

5. Critical Thinking and Psychology So, why do we care about critical thinking in Psychology? Outside of making sure you check your sources and don’t get scammed by “alternative medicine” or psychics, critical thinking is a huge part of research in Psychology.

7. The Scientific Method The Beginning: After making observations about the world or behavior, ask a question you want answered (“Does making rapid eye movements help reduce anxiety?”) After doing research, transform this question into a hypothesis: a specific, testable proposition about your subject (“People who perform rapid eye movements during therapy have significant reductions in anxiety.”)

8. The Scientific Method As Hank said, “replication is key”. Therefore, you must provide an operational definition. This is common language that distinctly and clearly lays out the experiment to be conducted (“People who perform side to side eye movements for a certain period of time show a decline of at least 10 points on an anxiety test compared to those who don’t.”)

9. Observational Methods Sometimes the best way to describe behavior is through observational methods. Observational methods are used to study, describe and predict behavior and mental processes. These are different from experiments, in which scientists control and explain behavior and mental processes.

10. Types of Observational Methods Naturalistic Observation: The process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in its natural environment. By observing adults working together or children playing, or observing animal interactions, scientists are able to see their behaviors as they naturally occur. Hank Green joked saying it was “spying”, but that isn’t too far off (although they have permission from humans). Problems: Humans who know they are being observed often act differently than natural. Biases on the part of researchers may prevent them from seeing certain behaviors.

11. Types of Observational Methods Case Studies: Intensive examinations of behavior or mental processes for one particular individual, group, or situation. Much of Freud’s research was based in case studies, and the field of neuropsychology, or the study of relationships between brain activity and thinking, rely on them. One famous example is “Joseph”, who the movie Rain Man was about. Problems: Are very focused. Often contain information only the research is interested in, and are unlikely to be applicable to the larger population.

12. Types of Observational Methods Surveys: using interviews and questionnaires to ask people about a variety of things, including beliefs and intentions. These include everything from opinion polls to post-shopping surveys. They enable researchers to get a great deal of information from a variety of people. Problems: The wording of the survey can cause issues, either with understanding or bias. It is difficult to make sure that your population is diverse enough to be significant. Survey participants may avoid embarrassing questions, or choose what they think they are expected to say.

13. Faulty Surveys

14. Faulty Surveys A survey asked New Zealanders if “a smack as part of good parental correction be a criminal offense in New Zealand”. Most said no. However, most said yes in favor of prohibiting “smacking” (spanking) in New Zealand elsewhere. (Leading words) A survey asked U.S. adults if they washed their hands after using the bathroom. 95% replied that they did. Observations showed closer to 77%. (Embarrassing question) A survey asked if women were unsatisfied with their marriage and cheated. Over 70% replied yes. The vast majority of responders were unsatisfied women. Satisfied women typically didn’t respond. (Poor representative population).

15. Correlational Studies Correlational studies examine relationships between variables in order to analyze trends in data, test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses. If two data trends seem to correlate, or move in similar patterns, additional research is conducted. However, it is important to remember:

16. CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

17. Examples of Faulty Correlation A survey found that teenagers exposed to sexual content on television or the internet often started having sex themselves. (Could they have had a strong interest in sex already, hence the television and internet?) The number of drownings in the United States rise and fall alongside the amount of ice cream sold (Time of year when swimming and ice cream are popular?) A study showed that the more antibiotics a woman has taken, the more likely she is to develop breast cancer (Compromised immune system, or is the cancer affected by the diseases the antibiotics were treating? More research.)

18. Examples of Coincidental Correlation http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations

19. Key Terms in Experimental Research Experiment: A situation in which a researcher manipulates one variable and then observes the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding other variables constant. Experimental Group: The group that is receiving the experimental treatment. Control Group: The group that is not receiving the treatment, or is otherwise providing a baseline.

20. Key Terms in Research Variables are the specific factors or characteristics that are manipulated and measured in research • Independent Variables (IV) are variables manipulated by the researcher. For the ongoing example, that would be whether or not a patient was using eye movement, how long the patient and how quickly the patient was making eye movement, etc. • Dependent Variables (DV) are the results influenced by the IVs and are measured by the researchers. In the example, this would be the levels of anxiety.

22. Key Terms in Research Data: Data, which is the plural of the word Datum, is all the information being gathered for the study. This could be statistics about the subject population, or the outcome of the experiment, such as those previously mentioned anxiety test scores. Scientists can often pay more attention to data that supports their hypothesis. This is called confirmation bias. We have many ways to combat confirmation bias, including double-blind experiments and looking for evidence that rejects our hypothesis.

23. Key Terms in Research Reliability: Also called “statistical reliability”, this measures the degree to which the data are stable and consistent. If the results of a test are not consistent, as in similar after multiple tests, the experiment is not reliable. Validity: Also called “statistical validity”, this measures how accurately the test measures what it is supposed to measure, or do what it is supposed to do. If the patients for the eye movement test claimed reduced anxiety, but did not display reduced anxiety in their actions and lives, the test would not be particularly valid.