Kingdom Fungi

1. Kingdom Fungi Introduction Prof. Khaled Abu-Elteen

2. Objectives • Introduction of fungi • Biology of fungi • Cell structure, growth and development • Physiology of fungi • Nutrition, Temp, UV light, and water • Classification of fungi

5. Some terms • mycology • study of fungi • mycologists • scientists who study fungi • mycotoxicology • study of fungal toxins and their effects • mycoses • diseases caused by fungi

6. FUNGI 100,000 species 100 human pathogens, fungi associated diseases are rising, due to nosocomial infections and in immunocompromised patients (ie. HIV, diabetes, transplant folks) Aspergillosis, Blastomycosis—pulmonary infections and dissemination may be involved 5,000 plant pathogens=$1 billion/yr

7. Fungal Characteristics • Eukaryotic • Multicellular • Heterotrophic • Absorb nutrients - may be saprobes (absorb from dead material), parasites, or mutualistic symbionts (with algae make lichen). • Secrete powerful hydrolytic enzymes • Cell walls contain chitin, an amino sugar polysaccharide also found in arthropod exoskeletons • Lack flagella

8. Characteristics of fungi A. eukaryotic, non- vascular organisms B. reproduce by means of spores (conidia), usually wind-disseminated C. both sexual (meiotic) and asexual (mitotic) spores may be produced, depending on the species and conditions D. typically not motile, although a few (e.g. Chytrids) have a motile phase. E. like plants, may have a stable haploid & diploid states F. vegetative body may be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular moulds composed of microscopic threads called hyphae. G. cell walls composed of mostly of chitin and glucan. H. Complex cytoplasm with internal organelles, microfilaments and microtubules

9. H. fungi are heterotrophic ( “other feeding,” must feed on preformed organic material), not autotrophic ( “self feeding,” make their own food by photosynthesis). - Unlike animals (also heterotrophic), which ingest then digest, fungi digest then ingest. -Fungi produce exoenzymes to accomplish this I. Most fungi store their food as glycogen (like animals). Plants store food as starch. K. Fungal cell membranes have a unique sterol, ergosterol, which replaces cholesterol found in mammalian cell membranes L. Tubule protein—production of a different type in microtubules formed during nuclear division. M. Most fungi have very small nuclei, with little repetitive DNA. N. Mitosis is generally accomplished without dissolution of the nuclear envelope

10. Introduction of fungi • Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic (chemoheterotrophic) microorganism • No chlorophyll, non-motile • Thread of cells (hyphae), transverse cell walls (septate), hyphal anastomosis • Storage compound; glycogen

11. Molds • filamentous fungi • hyphae (s., hypha) • the filaments of a mold • may be coenocytic (no cross walls) or have septa (cross walls) • mycelium (pl. mycelia) • bundles or tangled masses of hyphae

12. Yeasts • unicellular fungi • reproduce asexually, often by budding • reproduce sexually by formation of spores

14. Hyphae • Hyphae are designed to increase the surface area of fungi and thus facilitate absorption • May grow fast, up to 1 km per day, as they spread throughout a food source • May be coenocytic, having no septa between cells, or septa may be present with pores through which cytoplasm can flow moving nutrients through out the fungus • Parasitic fungi have modified hyphae called haustoria, which penetrate the host tissue but remain outside cell membrane

16. Hyphae

17. Pores Septa Hyphae Coenocytic

21. The Body of a Fungus • Fungi exist mainly in the form of slender filaments (hyphae). • long chains of cells joined end-to-end divided by cross-walls (septa) • rarely form complete barrier • cytoplasm freely streams in hyphae • mycelium - mass of connected hyphae • grows through and penetrates substrate

22. MYCELIUM • Intertwined filamentous mass formed by hyphae, visible to the unaided eye • Forms when environmental conditions are right • Vegetative mycelium: Mycelial portion remaining INSIDE the substrate to obtain nutrition • Reproductive mycelium: Mycelial portion extends into air ,responsible for SPORE reproduction

24. Introduction of fungi Other characteristics of fungi • the ability to synthesize lysine by the -amino adipic acid pathway(AAA-pathway) • possession of a chitinous cell wall • plasma membranes containing the sterol ergosterol • and microtubules composed of tubulin.

25. Structure • Cell wall • Plasma membrane • Microtubules • Nucleus

26. Fungal wall • Shape of fungi • Protect against osmotic lysis • It the wall contains pigments (melanin)  protect the cell against ultraviolet radiation or the lytic enzymes of other organisms • It can have antigenic properties

27. Cell wall components • Predominance of polysaccharides, lesser amounts of proteins and lipids

28. Division Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota/ deuteromycota Basidiomycota Table 1Major polysaccharide components of fungal walls Fibrillar components Chitin, glucan Chitin, chitosan Chitin, (1,3)-(1,6)- glucans Chitin, (1,3)- (1,6)- glucans Matrix components Glucan Polyglucoronic acid, glucuronomannoproteins -(1,3)-Glucan, galacto- mannoproteins ,,

29. Chitin

30. Cell wallcomponents • The major polysaccharides of cell wall matrix consist of glucans such as manans, chitosan, and galactans • Glucan refers to a group of D-glucose polymers having glycosidic bonds • Insoluble -glucans are apparently amorphous in cell wall • Mannans, galactomannans, rhamnomannans are responsible for the immunologic response to the medically important yeasts and molds

31. Cell Wall Structure In Fungi

32. Cell wall components • Consisting of chitinous microfibrils embedded in the matrix of small polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, inorganic salts, and pigments • Chitin is a (1-4)-linked polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) • Produced in cytosol (from UDP GlcNAc into chains of chitin by chitin synthetase) • The chitin microfibrils are transported to the plasmalemma and subsequently integrated into the new cell wall

33. Cell wall components • In addition to chitin, glucan, and mannan, cell walls may contain lipid, protein, chitosan, acid phosphatase, amylase, protease, melanin, and inorganic ions (phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium) • The outer cell wall of dermatophytes contains glycopeptides that may evoke both immediate and delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity

34. Plasma membrane • The main role of the plasma membrane • To regulate the uptake and release of materials • Integral membrane protein (chitin syntase, glucan syntase) • Signal transduction

35. Plasma membrane • Similar to mammalian plasma membrane, differing in having the nonpolar sterol ergosterol, rather than cholesterol • regulates the passage of materials into and out of the cell by being selective permeable • Several antifungal agents interfere with ergosterol synthesis (i.e., amphotericin B)

37. Microtubules • Composed of the protein tubulin, which consists of a dimer composed of two protein subunits. • Microtubules are long, hollow cylinders ~ 25 nm in diameter • Involved in the movement of organelles, chromosomes, nuclei, and Golgi vesicle containing cell wall precursor

38. Microtubules • Assist in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis • the destruction of cytoplasmic microtubules interferes with the transport of secretory materials to the cell periphery, which may inhibit cell wall synthesis

39. Nucleus • The nucleus is bounded by a double nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and a nucleolus • Fungal nuclei are variable in size, shape, and number • The number of chromosomes varies with the particular fungus • S.cerevisiae ; 18 (n) • T.mentagophytes ; 4 (n)

40. The growth of hyphae • Apical extension • Balance between wall synthesis and wall lysis • The apical vesicles are produced from Golgi bodies and then transported to the tip Spitzenkörper (apical body)

41. The vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane at the tip, and release their contents. • enzymes involved in wall synthesis, (chitin syntase, glucan synthase) • enzymes involved in wall lysis, • enzyme activators, • some preformed wall polymers such as mannoproteins

42. Physiology • Aeration • Nutrition • Water • Temperature • Hydrogen ion • Light

43. Aeration • The fungi include species that are obligately aerobic(eg. most Zygomycota),obligately anaerobic(eg.rumen fungi) • Organisms can obtain energy by oxidative (respiratory)metabolism or by fermentation • O2is used for oxidative metabolism to generate energy. However it is essential for biosynthesis of sterols, unsaturated fatty acids and some vitamins

44. Table 2 Energy metabolism in relation to O2 requirements Obligately oxidative. Obligate aerobes. Exp.Rhodotorula Facultatively fermentative. Energy can be obtained by oxidative and fermentative processed such fungi are likely to be faculative anaerobes. Oxidative metabolism, provides much more energy than fermentative, so higher yields can occur under aerobic conditions. Exp.Mucor, Saccharomyces Obiligately fermentative. Oxygen is not needed for energy production , may be either harmless or toxic. Exp.Blastocladia, Neocallimastix

45. Diagrammatic representation of the mixed-acid fermentation of the rumen chytrid Neocallimastix. Part of the fermentation occurs in the cytosol and hydrogenosome Hydrogenosome: functionally equivalent to the mitochondria of aerobic organisms

46. The nutrient requirement of fungi • Carbonneeds for the synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. • Simple sugars, polysaccharides, citric acid, glycerol • Nitrogen for synthesis of amino acids for proteins, purines and pyrimidines for nucleic acids, glucosamine for chitin, and various vitamins • Amino acid, ammonium, nitrate

47. Nutrition • C/N ratio (20:1) • Other elements • P : energy-rich compound metabolism, phospholipid in lipid bilayer • K : coenzyme • Mg : concer with sporulation • S : protein component • Trace elements • Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn

48. Nutrition

49. Czapek-Dox mediumwidely used for the culture of fungi Mineral base: Cand energy source: N source: Water: If a solid medium is required: KH2PO4 MgSO4.7H2O KCl FeSO4.7H2O Sucrose (Glu,starch) NaNO3 Agar 1 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.01 g 30 g 2 g 1 litre 20 g

50. Wateravailability • Most fungi require very high water availability (relative humidity), and rapidly dry out or senescence in dry conditions. • Water activity (aw) = ps/pw (pure water = 1) • DNA is denatured at aw = 0.55 • Osmophiles 0.85, Xerophiles 0.80, Halophiles 0.75 • The xerotolerant fungi can growslowly, at water activity of 0.64.