Instinct Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

1. Learning The key to leaning is association Instinct Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

2. Learning Ethology • The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. • Fixed Action Pattern • A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus.

3. LearningEthology Herring-Gull Models • In herring gull chicks, pecking is elicited (released) by the movement of any red dot, even on objects that do not resemble an adult herring gull. This is an example of a fixed action pattern.

4. LearningDefining Learning • A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. • Adaptation by learning is flexible. • Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning and not by instinct. • The key to learning is association.

5. LearningHabituation of Fear • Habituation • The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure • It is the simplest form of learning. • Note here that rats repeatedly exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time.

6. LearningClassical Conditioning • A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning). • Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another. • This type of learning involves • An unconditioned stimulus • An unconditioned response • A conditioned stimulus • A conditioned response

7. Classical Conditioning • An unconditioned stimulus (US) • A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response. • Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli • In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food. • An unconditioned response (UR) • An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. • Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR.

8. Classical Conditioning • A conditioned stimulus (CS) • A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US. • In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell. • A conditioned response (CR) • A learned response to a classically conditioned stimulus. • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR.

9. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Apparatus • Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper.

10. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryBefore Conditioning • Before Stimuli Are Paired • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR) • Meat powder leads to salivation • Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response • Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation

11. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryDuring and After Conditioning • Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus • Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered • This procedure is repeated several times • After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food • When Bell rings, dog salivates • The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)

12. Classical Conditioning

13. Classical Conditioning Basic Principles • Acquisition • Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus • Extinction • Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus • Spontaneous Recovery • Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

14. Classical Conditioning Temporal Relations in Classical Conditioning • In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US. • Easiest conditioning • In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together. • In backward pairing, the CS follows the US. • Most difficult Time

15. Classical Conditioning Generalization & Discrimination • Stimulus Generalization • The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus • Discrimination • In classical and operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli

16. Classical Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning • With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS. • The bell (CS) is paired with a black square. • This neutral stimulus becomes a CS. • In the example, the black square elicits salivation. • One CS was used to create another CS.

17. Classical Conditioning When the CS Predicts the US • Top graph: The US does not happen without the CS • Good learning here, the CS predicts the US • Bottom graph: The US happens with or without CS • Poor learning here, the CS does not predict the US

18. Classical ConditioningThe Conditioning of Little Albert • An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat. • Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert. • Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry. • Including rabbits and a Santa Claus mask

19. LearningOperant ConditioningThorndike’sLaw of Effect • Cats were put into puzzle boxes and the time to escape decreased over the number of attempts. • Law of Effect • Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not.

20. Operant Conditioning -The Principles of Reinforcement Operant Conditioning The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement. Reinforcement Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response. Positive – presentation of something desirable food, $, grades, XOs, praise Negative – removal of aversivestimulus End of electric shock, end of time out

21. The Principles of Reinforcement Punishment Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response. NOT A FORM OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Positive – stops behavior by presenting something aversive Scolding, spanking, time-out, jail Negative – stops behavior by removing something desirable Taking away toy, ignoring, taking away car keys Shaping Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior.

22. Operant ConditioningReinforcement & Punishment

23. Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement • Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns. • Steeper lines mean higher response rates. • Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules.

24. Operant ConditioningUsing Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance • All salesclerks were observed for a 20-day baseline period. • Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not. • The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance.

25. Operant ConditioningCondition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit • Identify specific target behavior to change • Record baseline • Formulate a plan • To increase a behavior, use reinforcement • To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it occurs or remove reinforcements • Implement the plan, revise as needed • Maintain the change

26. Operant ConditioningNew DevelopmentsRats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map • Tolman trained rats in this maze, with all alleys open. • If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path. • If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path. • Green path is also blocked. • Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map.

27. Operant ConditioningNew DevelopmentsLatent Learning • Latent Learning:Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so. • Some rats found food every time (red line) • Some rats never found food (blue line) • Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line)

28. Operant ConditioningNew DevelopmentsHidden Cost of Rewards • Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and were observed. • Divided into 3 groups: • Given markers again and asked to draw • Promised a reward for playing with markers • Played with markers, then rewarded • Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them.

29. Observational Learning Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others. Studies of Modeling Children and others model both antisocial and prosocial behavior.

30. Observational LearningThe Process of Modeling Involves: • Attention • One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences. • Retention • One must recall what was observed. • Reproduction • Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the modeled behavior. • Motivation • Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act.