Chapter 1 Section 4

1. Chapter 1 Section 4 Contemporary Perspectives Obj: Describe the seven main contemporary perspectives in psychology.

2. The Biological Perspective The biological perspective emphasizes the influence of biology on our behavior. Psychologists assume that our mental processes – our thoughts, fantasies, and dreams – are made possible by the nervous system, particularly the brain. These psychologists look for connections between events in the brain, such as the activity of brain cells, and behavior and mental processes.

3. They use several techniques, such as CAT scans and PET scans, to show which parts of the brain are involved in various mental processes. It has shown that certain parts of the brain are highly active when we listen to music; other parts are active when we solve math problems, and still other parts are involved with certain psychological disorders. They’ve also learned that certain chemicals in the brain are connected with the storage of information – that is, the formation of memories.

4. The Evolutionary Perspective The evolutionary perspective focuses on the evolution of behavior and mental processes. British scientist Charles Darwin theorized that in the struggle for survival, the most-adaptive organisms have a greater chance of surviving to maturity, when they reproduce. These psychologists suggest that many kinds of behavior patterns, such as aggressive behavior, also have a hereditary basis. They believe that inherited tendencies influence people to act in certain ways.

5. The Cognitive Perspective The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role that thoughts play in determining behavior. Cognitive psychologists study mental processes to understand human nature. In short, they study the mind. These psychologists have been influenced by many different schools, and more recently by computers. People are said to have working memories and storage facilities.

6. If information has been placed in computer storage or in a person’s long-term memory, it must first be retrieved before it can be worked on again. To retrieve information from computer storage, people must know the name for the data file and the process for retrieving data. Similarly, cognitive psychologists believe people need certain cues to retrieve information from their long-term memories. Otherwise, it is lost to them.

7. Cognitive psychologists believe that people's behavior is influenced by their values, their perceptions, and their choices. For example, an individual who interprets a casual remark as an insult may react with hostility. But the same remark directed at another person might be perceived very differently by that person and thus may meet with a different reaction.

8. The Humanistic Perspective The humanistic perspective stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choices. Consciousness is seen as the force that shapes human personality. Humanistic’s consider people’s personal experiences to be the most important aspect of psychology. They believe that self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us to “invent ourselves”.

9. In other words, they enable us to fashion our growth and our ways of relating the world as we go through life. They believe we are free to choose our own behavior. They view people as basically good and desiring to be helpful to others. Humanistic psychologists help people explore their feelings, manage negative impulses, and realize their potential. Critics insist that people’s inner experiences are unsuited to scientific observation and measurement.

10. The Psychoanalytic Perspective The psychoanalytic perspective stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior. In the 40’s and 50’s, this theory dominated psychology, and its influence still continues to be felt. Psychologists who follow Freud’s approach today focus less on the roles of unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses and more on conscious choice and self-direction.

11. Freud believed that aggressive impulses are common reactions to the frustrations of daily life and that we seek to vent theses impulses on other people. Because we fear rejection or retaliation, we put most aggressive impulses out of our minds. But by holding aggression in, we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. Partial outlets can be provided by physical activity but we may also direct hostile impulses toward strangers. (That guy who intentionally bumped you in the hall might be venting unconscious anger toward his parents.)

12. The Learning Perspective The learning perspective emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior. In the views of many psychologists, learning is the essential factor in observing, describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. However, the term learning has different meanings to different psychologists.

13. Social-learning theory suggests that people can change their environments or create new ones. Furthermore, social-learning theory holds that people can learn intentionally by observing others. These theorists believe that conscious observational learning provides people with a storehouse of responses to life’s situations. However, people’s expectations and values influence whether they choose to do what they have learned how to do.

14. Psychologists who take the learning perspective believe that behavior is learned either from direct experience or by observing other people. Like cognitive theorists, social-learning theorists believe that people act in a particular way only when they recognize that the circumstances call for that behavior. For example, we react to how we are treated.

15. The Sociocultural Perspective The sociocultural perspective studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes. By taking these factors into account, psychologists can better understand how people act and think. The science of psychology is enriched by awareness of these factors and by taking them into account when conducting research.